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http://www.archive.org/details/fiveblackartspopOOcoggrich 


FIVE  BLACK  ARTS, 


A  POPULAR  ACCOUNT 


OP  THE 


f  istorg,  f  rormes  of  ^anufactun,  mis  '^m 


OP 


PHINTINQ,  OAS-LIGHT, 

POTTEBY,  GLASS, 

IRON. 


WITH    NUMEROUS    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


CONDENSED  FROM  THE  ENCYGLOP J^IDIA  BRITANNICA, 


COLUMBUS: 

FOLLETT,  FOSTER  AND  COMPANY. 
1861. 


PREFACE. 


The  ENCYCLOPiEDiA  Britannica*  is  standard  author- 
ity on  Science,  and  on  Arts  and  Manufactures.  It 
is  an  expensive  work,  and  its  circulation  in  America 
is  confined  to  Libraries  in  prominent  cities.  It  was, 
therefore,  deemed  advisable,  by  the  Publishers  of  this 
Book,  to  put  in  form  convenient  for  the  humblest 
private  Library,  the  information  it  furnishes  on  some 
of  the  Arts  in  which  everybody  is  interested. 

Printing,  Pottery  and  Porcelain,  Gas-Light,  Glass, 
and  Iron  were  selected  by  the  Editor,  because  in 
their  uses  they  are  familiar  to  all  the  people,  but  in 
their  history,  and  in  the  process  of  their  manufacture, 
are  mysteries  to  a  large  majority. 

The  articles,  herewith  published,  are  agreeable 
in  style ;  they  have  been  condensed  only  in  parts 
pertaining  especially  to  English  processes  of  man- 


*  The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  or  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Sciences,  and 
General  Literature.  Eighth  Edition,  with  extensive  improvements  and 
additions,  and  numerous  engravings.  Adam  and  Charles  Black,  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland.  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston,  Massachusetts.  22  vols, 
quarto.     186L 


iv  Pkeface. 

ufacture ;  and  the  Editor  is  confident  that  they  will 
prove  both  instructive  and  interesting  to  all  who 
have  not  made  the  Arts  represented  a  particular 
study,  and  will  be  serviceable  to  many  who  practi- 
cally pursue  those  Arts. 

W.  T.  C. 
Columbus,  Ohio,  January,  1861. 


CONTENTS 


HISTORY  AND  PROCESS  OF  PRINTING.  ^*^^ 

History 4 

Practical  Printing 75 

Stereotyping 96 

polytypage 106 

Printing  for  the  Blind Ill 

Other  Processes 114 

Nature  Printing 115 

Printing  in  Colors 118 

Bank-Note  Printino 124 

Printing  Machines 126 

POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN. 

Historical  Sketch 140 

The  Materials 166 

The  Manufacture 171 

Ornamentation 179 

GLASS:  ITS  HISTORY  AND  MANUFACTURE. 

History 189 

Crown  Glass 202 

Sheet 210 

Plate 214 

Stained  or  Painted 219 

Glazing  of  Windows 228 

The  Cutting  Diamond 231 

Flint  Glass  or  Crystal 234 

Bottle 241 


vi  Contents. 

HISTORY  AND  PROCESSES  OF  MAKING  GAS-LIGHT. 

History 247 

Arrangement  op  Apparatus 253 

Retorts  for  Coal 255 

Condensing,  Main  and  Dip  Pipes 264 

Tar  Apparatus 268 

Apparatus  for  separating 266 

Gasometer 271 

Main  and  Service  Pipes 275 

Governor  or  Regulator 278 

Gas  Meter 280 

Burners , 284 

Oil,  Water,  and  Resin  Gas 294 

Determining  Illuminating  Power 296 

Hints  for  Improving  Coal  Gas 303 

Deterioration  op           '•'        "      308 

Economy  op                   "       "      309 

Secondary  Products 311 

IRON :    HISTORY  OF  ITS  MANUFACTURE,  WITH  AN  AC- 
COUNT OF  ITS  PROPERTIES  AND  USES. 

History  op  Iron  Manufacture 317 

The  Ores 323 

The  Fuel 331 

Manufacture 336 

Conversion  of  Crude  Iron  into  Malleable 349 

Machinery  op  Manufacture 363 

The  Forge 370 

Strength  and  other  Properties  of  Cast-Iron 374 

Malleable 381 

Statistics  of  the  Iron  Trade 391 


Contents. 


vu 


ILLUSTBATIONS 


Index  to  Descriptive  Pages. 

PRINTING. 

Fig.  1 65 

2 66 

3,4 68 

5 69 

6,  7 79 

GLASS. 

Fig.  1 208 

2,  3,  4,  5,  6 209 

7,8 2X0 

GAS-LIGHT. 

Fig.  1 278 

2,  3 280 

4,5 282 

6 284 

7,  8,  9,  10 287 

11 292 

12  296 

13 298 

IRON. 

Fig.  1 336 

2,3 337 

4 343 

5 363 

6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12 364 

13 365 

14,  15,  16,  17 368 

18,19 370 


HISTORY 


AND 


PROCESS  OF  PRINTING 


BY    THOMAS    C.    HANSARD. 


LETTER-PRESS  PRINTING. 


Printing  is  the  art  of  taking  one  or  more  impressions 
from  the  same  surface,  whereby  characters  and  signs,  cast, 
engraven,  drawn,  or  otherwise  represented  thereon,  are 
caused  to  present  their  reverse  images  upon  paper,  vellum, 
parchment,  linen,  and  other  substances,  in  pigments  of  va- 
rious hues,  or  by  means  of  chemical  combinations,  of  which 
the  components  are  contained  on  or  within  the  surface  from 
which  the  impression  is  taken,  or  in  the  fabric  of  the  thing 
impressed,  or  in  both. 

The  most  important  branch  of  printing  is  what  is  called 
letter-press  printing,  or  the  method  of  taking  impressions 
from  letters  and  other  characters  cast  in  relief  upon  separate 
pieces  of  metal,  and  therefore  capable  of  indefinite  combi- 
nation. The  impressions  are  taken  either  by  superficial  or 
surface  pressure,  as  in  the  common  printing-press,  or  by 
lineal  or  cylindrical  pressure,  as  in  the  printing  machine 
and  roller-press.  The  pigments  or  inks,  of  whatever  color, 
are  always  upon  the  surface  of  the  types ;  and  the  sub- 
stances which  may  be  impressed  are  various.  Wood-cuts 
and  other  engravings  in  relief  are  also  printed  in  this 
manner. 

Copperplate  printing  is  the  reverse  of  the  above,  the  char- 
acters being  engraven  in  intaglio,  and  the  pigments  or  inks 
contained  within  the  lines  of  the  engravings,  and  not  upon 
the  surface  of  the  plate.  The  impressions  are  always  taken 
by  lineal  or  cylindrical  pressure ;  the  substances  to  be  im- 
pressed, however,  are  more  limited.  All  engravings  in  in- 
taglio, on  whatever  material,  are  printed  by  this  method. 

Lithographic  printing  is  from  the  surface  of  certain  porous 
stones,  upon  which  characters  are  drawn  with  peculiar  pen- 
cils.    The  surface  of  the  stone  being  wetted,  tha  chemical 


4  Five  Black  Arts. 

coloring  compound  adheres  to  the  drawing,  and  refuses  the 
stone.  The  impression  is  taken  bj  a  scraper  that  rubs  vio- 
lently upon  the  back  of  the  substances  impressed,  which  are 
fewer  still  in  number.  Drawings  upon  zinc  and  other  mate- 
rials are  printed  by  this  process. 

Cotton  and  calico  printing  is  from  surfaces  engraven 
either  in  relief  or  intaglio.  The  chemical  compounds  are 
either  on  or  within  the  characters,  as  pigments  or  chemical 
colors,  or  in  the  fabric  to  be  printed,  but  mostly  in  both  ;  the 
combination  of  chemical  substances  producing  color  when  the 
fabric  and  the  engraving  are  brought  into  contact.  The  im- 
pression is  either  superficial  or  lineal,  but  mostly  lineal. 

HISTORY. 

The  origin  and  history  of  an  art  which  has  exercised  such 
an  influence  on  civilization,  and  contributed  in  so  essential 
a  manner  to  the  cultivation  of  the  human  intellect,  have 
naturally  become  a  matter  of  inquiry  amongst  the  learned, 
and  have  almost  as  naturally  been  the  source  of  earnest  con- 
troversy; for  there  are  few  effects  of  human  invention  or 
industry  that  have  been  originated  and  brought  to  perfection 
at  a  particular  epoch,  without  any  previous  train  of  thought 
or  circumstance,  so  that  the  precise  day  or  year  could  be 
noted  in  which  the  perfect  Minerva  started  forth  in  full  ma- 
turity. On  the  contrary,  it  is  difficult  to  say  at  what  period 
of  time  the  germ  of  the  art  of  printing  did  not  exist.  So 
obvious  is  the  reproduction  of  similar  appearances  from  an 
impression  of  the  same  surface,  that  the  most  early  of  man- 
kind  must  have  noted  it ;  and  even  the  impression  of  a  foot 
or  a  hand  must  have  suggested  a  simple  and  intelligible  mode 
of  conveying  an  idea,  before  the  invention  of  any  kind  of 
writing.  Accordingly,  these  and  similar  signs  are  found  to 
compose  the  chief  characters  of  the  earliest  writing. 

Observing  this  general  law  of  the  gradual  perfectibility 
of  human  arts,  we  must  look  back  to  the  most  remote  ages 
for  the  first  steps  of  that  of  printing.  We  shall  accordingly 
find  certain  evidence,  that  more  than  two  thousand  years 
before  our  era,  a  method  of  multiplying  impressions,  rude 
and  imperfect  in  the  extreme,  was  certainly  practiced. 

The  earliest  practice  which  can  with  propriety  be  called 
printing  was  probably  that  of  impressing  seals  upon  a  plastic 


Printing — History.  5 

material,  the  purpose  being  confined  to  the  single  effect  of 
each  single  impression.  The  next  step  of  which  the  dili- 
gence of  inquirers  has  taken  note,  and  which  is  a  step  thus 
much  further  in  advance  that  its  object  was  the  multiplica- 
tion of  impressions  for  the  purpose  of  diffusing  information 
— the  practice,  namely,  of  impressing  symbols  or  characters 
upon  clay  and  other  materials  used  in  forming  bricks,  cylin- 
ders, and  the  walls  of  edifices — was  an  art  confined,  so  far 
as  our  knowledge  extends,  to  the  ancient  centers  of  civiliza- 
tion in  Egypt  and  Asia.  Some  examples  of  this  art  found 
their  way  many  years  ago  into  the  great  public  museums 
and  chief  private  collections  of  Europe,  where  they  were 
objects  of  curiosity  and  wonder.  In  the  present  day,  the 
researches  of  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  and  others  into  the 
antiquities  of  Egypt,  and  of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  and  Mr. 
Layard  into  the  ruins  of  the  buried  cities  of  Asia,  have  pro- 
duced a  vast  quantity  of  materials  illustrative  of  the  subject. 
The  relative  antiquity  of  the  Egyptian  and  Asiatic  remains 
belong  to  another  inquiry.  Among  the  Egyptian  remains 
are  numerous  bricks  of  clay  stamped  with  the  nome7i  and 
agnomen  of  the  king  inclosed  within  a  cartouche.  The  mode 
by  which  the  impressions  were  made  is  manifest.  The  prints 
are  very  irregularly  placed,  without  any  reference  to  paral- 
lelism with  the  sides,  and  are  always  more  or  less  awry, 
according  to  the  manual  skill  and  care  of  the  workman :  the 
surface  of  the  bricks  around  the  depression  is  forced  up  con- 
siderably, which  is  exactly  the  effect  of  pressing  the  hand  or 
any  substance  into  a  plastic  material ;  and  the  edges,  both  of 
the  general  depressions  and  of  the  figures,  present  the  effect 
of  the  stamps  having  been  drawn  up  whilst  the  clay  was  yet 
damp  and  adherent  to  it.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the 
inscriptions  were  stamped  in  after  the  clay  had  been  turned 
out  of  the  mould,  and  were  not  produced  by  any  part  of  it. 
To  make  the  evidence  complete,  there  have  been  found  many 
stamps  of  wood,  having  on  the  face  cartouches  and  inscrip- 
tions precisely  resembling  in  kind  those  which  must  have  been 
used  for  stamping  the  bricks.  On  some  of  these  stamps  and 
impressions  there  are  slight  traces  of  color.  There  have 
also  been  found  in  Egypt  numerous  figures  of  baked  clay 
and  porcelain  on  which  hieroglyphic  characters  have  appa- 
rently been  impressed  singly,  side  by  side,  by  stamps ;   and 


6  Five  Black  Arts. 

on  the  walls  of  their  ruder  huildings  hieroglyphic  and  picto- 
rial figures  of  considerable  size  have  been  produced  by  the 
same  means  and  afterward  colored.  Of  articles  of  domestic 
use  are  certain  instruments  called  tesserce,  having  incised 
characters,  the  use  of  which  has  certainly  been  to  stamp 
plastic  materials ;  and  there  have  also  been  found  leather 
belts  and  ornaments  on  which  figures  have  been  impressed 
singly  by  tools. 

The  ruins  of  the  cities  of  Asia  supply  us  with  numerous 
examples  similar  to  those  of  Egypt,  but  carrying  the  art 
farther.  The  ruins  contain  countless  bricks,  on  which  are 
impressed  inscriptions  similar  to  those  of  Egypt,  but  much 
more  elaborate.  Mr.  Layard  says,  that  the  characters  on 
the  Assyrian  bricks  were  made  separately :  some  letters  may 
have  been  impressed  singly  with  a  stamp,  but  from  the  care- 
less and  irregular  way  in  which  they  are  formed  and  grouped 
together,  it  is  more  probable  that  they  were  all  cut  by  an 
instrument  and  by  hand  ;  but  that  the  inscriptions  on  the 
Babylonian  bricks  are  generally  inclosed  in  a  small  square, 
and  are  formed  with  considerable  care  and  nicety ;  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  impressed  with  a  stamp,  on  which  the 
entire  inscription,  and  not  isolated  letters,  was  cut  in  relief. 
From  this  circumstance,  Mr.  Layard  ascribes  greater  an- 
tiquity to  the  Assyrian  remains. 

Mr.  Layard's  researches  have  further  made  evident  that 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  these  cities  practiced  a  more  ad- 
vanced and  elegant  usage  of  imprinting  in  their  domestic 
and  ornamental  arts.  He  has  discovered  great  quantities  of 
tiles  and  tablets  covered  with  incised  or  incussed  characters, 
on  which  was  impressed,  while  the  clay  was  yet  wet,  a  line 
of  characters  or  symbols — apparently  an  authorization  or 
verification — produced  by  the  rolling  of  engraved  cylinders ; 
and  other  tiles,  of  which  he  says,  "  The  most  common  mode 
of  keeping  records  in  Assyria  and  Babylon  was  on  prepared 
bricks,  tiles,  or  cylinders  of  clay,  baked  after  the  inscription 
was  impressed ;^^ — this  impression  must  not  be  mistaken  for 
the  application  of  a  stamp ;  it  is  effected  by  the  use  of  an 
instrument  in  the  hand,  by  which  various  combinations  of  the 
same  form  were  indented  into  the  moist  clay,  and  therefore 
partakes  more  of  the  character  of  impressed  writing:  in 
many  of  the  specimens  thus  impressed,  the  writing  (or  text) 


Printing — History.  7 

does  not  cover  the  entire  tile  or  tablet,  and  the  blank  is  iSlled 
up  by  repeated  impressions  of  the  same  seal ;  and  in  some 
cases  the  entire  text  has  been  surrounded  by  an  impression 
from  a  cylinder  rolled  round,  forming  an  endless  scroll,  by 
which  any  addition  to  the  text  is  rendered  impossible.  Great 
numbers  of  cylinders  have  been  found.  They  are  elaborately 
engraven  on  various  stones ;  some  are  perfect  cylinders,  some 
barrel-shaped,  others  slightly  curved  inward.  Others  again 
are  af  baked  clay,  on  which  the  characters  have  been  iV 
cussed  while  the  clay  was  yet  moist.  Many  of  them  are 
perforated  longitudinally,  and  revolve  on  a  metal  axis.  In 
describing  an  engraved  cylinder  of  great  beauty  found  in 
the  mounds  opposite  Mosul,  Mr.  Layard  says,  that  on  each 
eide  there  were  sixty  lines  written  in  such  minute  characters, 
that  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass  was  required  to  ascertain 
their  forms.  The  habitual  use  of  these  elaborate  articles  is 
unknown, — by  some  they  are  supposed  to  be  charms, — by 
others,  records  of  family  or  personal  transactions.  The 
smaller  examples  were  used  to  impress  plastic  materials  as 
signets ;  but  it  is  clear,  from  the  shapes  of  the  greater  num- 
ber, and  from  the  circumstance  that  the  characters  they  bear 
are  invariably  engraven  or  impressed  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  to  be  read,  and  not  reversed,  that  they  were  not  in- 
tended to  multiply  impressions  on  soft  surfaces  by  way  of 
diffusing  information. 

That  a  similar  art  was  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  old 
world  generally,  may  safely  be  assumed.  It  is  therefore  not 
a  little  remarkable  that  peoples  so  original  and  ingenious  as 
tlie  Greeks,  and  so  imitative  as  the  Romans,  should  have  left 
almost  no  vestige  of  their  having  practiced  any  such  means 
as  this  to  multiply  their  beautiful  creations  of  fancy,  or  to 
embellish  the  tasteful  appliances  of  domestic  life ;  especially 
when  we  consider  the  easy  application  of  the  art  to  pottery, 
and  the  beauty,  taste,  and  ingenuity  which  they  exhibited  in 
that  manufacture.  For,  excepting  a  few  paltry  designs  en 
ereux  on  some  of  the  coarser  specimens,  and  a  few  marks 
upon  the  Roman  military  vessels,  evidently  stamped,  there  is 
no  appearance  of  either  people  having  had  any  idea  of  this 
kind.  They  had,  however,  numerous  instruments  presenting 
a  singular  instance  how  very  nearly  we  may  approach  to  an 
important  discovery,  and  yet  pass  on  unheeding.     These  are 


8  Five  Black  Arts. 

stamps  of  various  sizes,  having  on  their  faces  inscriptions  in 
raised  characters  reversed.  The  material  is  brass  or  bronze. 
The  letters  of  the  inscriptions  are  considerably  raised,  and 
the  face  of  them  is  rough  and  rounded,  as  though  they  were 
rudely  cast  in  a  mould.  To  the  back  of  most  a  handle  has 
been  fastened ;  some  have  a  loop  to  allow  the  fingers  to  pass 
through ;  some  a  boss  to  rest  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  ;  some 
a  ring.  One  use  of  these  stamps  has  probably  been  to  press 
the  inscription  into  a  soft  material ;  but  the  more  common 
application,  especially  of  the  smaller  specimens,  has  evidently 
been  to  print  the  inscription  on  surfaces  by  the  aid  of  color. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  their  purpose  was  to  imprint  the 
coverings  of  bales  of  goods  with  the  marks  of  their  owners. 
Among  relics  of  this  kind  is  the  signet  of  C.  Caecilius  Her- 
mias.*  The  face  of  this  is  two  inches  by  four-fifths  of  an 
inch,  and  the  inscription  (reversed) 


CICAECILI 
HERMIAE.  SN. 


with  a  border,  is  in  relief,  the  surrounding  parts  being  cut 
away  to  a  considerable  depth.  It  should  be  especially 
noticed,  that  the  surface  of  the  background  is  very  rough ; 
and  there  is  a  ring  at  the  back  by  which  it  could  be  handled 
or  suspended.  These  circumstances  render  the  use  of  it 
very  clear.  It  would  be  very  much  easier  to  incise  the  re- 
quired inscription,  and  to  let  the  field  stand  (indeed  the  art 
of  engraving  en  creux  was  well  known  and  used),  than  to  cut 
away  the  field  and  leave  the  letters  in  relief ;  and  it  would 
produce  a  much  more  beautiful  efiect  if  it  were  used  to  im- 
press any  soft  substance  ;  whereas,  cut  as  it  is,  the  impres- 
sion sunk  into  wax  or  clay  would  not  only  be  ugly,  but 
illegible,  and  the  rough  surface  of  the  background  would 
present  the  most  ungainly  appearance  upon  the  prominent 
parts  of  the  wax,  being  the  parts  most  presented  to  the 
eye.     Its  use  therefore  is  evident.     The  relieved  inscrip- 

*  In  the  British  Museum. 


Printing — History.  9 

tion,  and  no  other  part,  being  covered  with  ink  or  pigment, 
was  impressed  upon  an  even  surface  (papyrus,  linen,  parch- 
ment), and  consequently  left  a  perfect  but  reversed  im- 
print of  itself.  This  is  the  precise  effect  of  printing  with 
types.  From  the  Greek  agnomen^  Csecilius  probably  lived 
under  the  emperors,  when  literature  had  become  one  of  the 
pursuits  of  the  great,  and  when  the  difficulties  and  expense 
of  procuring  books  by  the  slow  process  of  copying  were 
bitterly  felt.  It  is  singular,  therefore,  that  the  Romans 
should  have  overlooked  so  obvious  an  improvement  upon  their 
own  signets  as  the  engraving  whole  sentences  and  composi- 
tions upon  blocks,  and  thence  transferring  them  to  paper — 
even  if  they  had  gone  no  farther  than  this.* 

From  this  time  a  vast  period  elapses  before  any  circum- 
stance can  safely  be  instanced  as  showing  that  the  practice 
of  transferring  characters  was  known  to  any,  even  compara- 

*  The  Chinese  printing  is  not  unlike  this,  and  must  by  no  moans  be  sup- 
posed to  have  much  similarity  to  the  modern  art.  They  assert  that  it  was 
used  by  them  several  centuries  before  it  was  known  in  Europe ;  in  fact, 
fifty  years  before  the  Christian  era.  They  certainly  may  have  used  their 
method  centuries  before  our  art,  for  it  ditt'ers  in  nothing  but  extent  from 
that  of  the  old  Roman.  The  following  is  a  description  of  their  method  at 
the  present  day,  and  it  is  probably  the  same  in  every  respect  as  that  in 
practice  two  thousand  years  ago  in  an  empire  where  nothing  is  changed. 
As  their  written  language  consists  of  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  thou- 
sand characters,  it  would  be  utterly  impracticable  to  use  movable  types, 
and  the  use  of  block-printing  would  be  the  most  easy  and  rapid.  The  sen- 
tences, therefore,  desired  to  be  multiplied,  being  drawn  upon  their  thin 
paper,  this  is  made  to  adhere  with  the  face  downward  to  a  block  of  soft 
wood,  so  that  the  characters  appear,  though  reversed.  The  plain  wood  ig 
then  cut  away  with  most  wonderful  rapidity,  and  the  drawing  left  in  relief. 
Both  sides  of  the  block  are  similarly  operated  upon.  The  engraved  wood 
is  then  properly  arranged  upon  a  frame,  and  the  artist,  with  a  large  brush, 
covers  the  whole  surface,  the  field  as  well  as  the  relief,  with  a  very  thin 
ink ;  he  then  lays  very  lightly  over  it  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  passes  a  large 
soft  brush  over  it,  so  slightly,  yet  so  surely,  that  the  paper  is  pressed  upon 
the  raised  figures,  and  upon  no  other  part.  The  rapidity  with  which  this 
is  performed  is  extraordinary ;  for  Du  Halde  asserts  that  one  man  can 
print  10,000  sheets  in  one  day,  a  number  which  would  appear  incredible, 
did  not  very  good  testimony  exist  at  the  present  time  that  one  man  can 
print  700  sheets  per  hour.  The  method  of  putting  the  thin  sheets  together 
when  printed  is  as  different  from  ours  as  their  printing  and  mode  of  read- 
ing. The  sheets  are  printed  on  one  side  only ;  but  instead  of  the  blanks 
being  pasted  together  to  form  one  leaf,  the  sheet  is  so  folded  that  no  single 
edge  of  paper  is  presented  to  the  reader,  but  only  the  double  folded  edge, 
the  loose  edges  being  all  at  the  back  of  the  book.  The  late  emperor  had 
punches  or  matrices  cut,  from  which  copper  types  were  cast ;  but  the  num- 
ber of  characters  required — about  60,000 — is  so  great,  that  composition  ie 
almost  impracticable. 


10  Five  Black  Arts. 

lively  civilized  people.     From  the  rough  and  imperfect  at- 
tempts above  indicated  an  early  and  obvious  advance  was 
engraving  pictures  upon  wooden  blocks.     The  first  practice 
of  this  is  involved  in  obscurity ;  but  most  writers  on  the  fine 
arts  agree  that  the  art  was  invented  toward  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  by  a  brother  and  sister  of  the  illustrious 
family  of  Cunio,  lords  of  Imola,  in  Italy.     By  some  the 
whole  narrative  is  considered  as  apocryphal,  but  it  is  never- 
theless generally  admitted.     The  engravings  were  discovered 
by  a  Frenchman  of  the  name  of  Papillon,  in  the  possession 
of  a  Swiss  gentleman,  M.  de  Groeder,  who  deciphered  for 
him  the  manuscript  annotations  found  on  the  leaves  of  the 
book  in  which  they  were  bound.     These  purported  that  the 
book  had  been  given  to  Jan.  Jacq.  Turine,  a  native  of  Berne, 
by  the  Count  of  Cunio,  with  whose  family  he,  Turine,  appears 
to  have  been  intimately  acquainted.     Then  follows  a  roman- 
tic history  of  the  twins,  and  the  cause  of  their  invention. 
The  book  is  entitled:    "  The  Heroic  Actions,  represented  in 
figures,  of  the  great  and  magnanimous  Macedonian  king,  the 
bold  and  vahant  Alexander;  dedicated,  presented,  and  hum- 
bly offered  to  the  most  Holy  Father  Pope  Honorius  IV., 
the  glory  and  support  of  the  Church,  and  to  our  illustrious 
and  generous  father  and  mother,  by  us  Alessandro  Alberico 
Cunio,  cavaliere,  and  Isabella  Cunio,  twin  brother  and  sis- 
ter ;  first  reduced,  imagined,  and  attempted  to  be  executed 
in  relief,  with  a  small  knife,  on  blocks  of  wood,  made  even 
and  polished  by  this  learned  and  dear  sister ;  continued  and 
finished  by  us  together,  at  Ravenna,  from  the  eight  pic- 
tures of  our  invention,  painted  six  times  larger  than  here 
represented ;  engraved,  explained  by  verses,  and  thus  mark- 
ed upon  the  paper,  to  perpetuate  the  number  of  them,  and 
to  enable  us  to  present  them  to  our  relations  and  friends,  in 
testimony  of  gratitude,  friendship,  and  affection.     All  this 
was  done  and  finished  by  us  when  only  sixteen  years  of  age." 
This  title  is  here  given  in  full  length,  because,  if  genuine,  it 
presents  us  at  once  with  the  origin,  execution,  and  design  of 
these  first  attempts  at  block-printing.     The  book  consists  of 
nine  engravings,  including  the  title ;  the  figures  are  toler- 
ably well  designed,  and  the  draperies  graceful,  with  here  and 
there  attempts  at  cross-hatching ;  under  the  principal  person- 
ages are  their  names ;  above,  are  inscriptions  indicating  the 


Printing — History.  11 

subject,  and  below,  four  lines  of  poetical  Latin  explanatory 
of  it ;  and  in  some  parts  of  each  print  is  an  inscription  indi- 
cating the  share  the  twins  respectively  had  in  the  execution. 
The  color  of  the  pigment  is  gray. 

The  first  subject  is  Alexander  on  Bucephalus.  Upon  a 
stone,  Isabel.  Cunio  pinx,  et  scalp. 

The  second  subject,  the  passage  of  the  Granicus.  Alex. 
Alb.  Cunio  Equ.  pinx.    Isabel.  Cunio  scalp. 

The  third  subject,  Alexander  cutting  the  Gordian  Knot. 
Alex.  Albe.  Cunio  Equ.  pinx.  et  scalp. 

The  fourth  subject,  Alexander  in  the  tent  of  Darius. 
Isabel.  Cunio  pinx.  et  scalp. 

The  fifth,  Alexander  giving  Campaspe  to  Apelles.  Alex. 
Alb.  Cunio  Eques.  pinx.  et  scalp. 

The  sixth,  the  Battle  of  Arbela.  Alex.  Alb.  Equ.  et 
Isabel.  Cunio  pictor.  et  scalp. 

The  seventh,  Porus  brought  to  Alexander.  Isabel.  Cunio 
pinx.  et  scalp. 

The  eighth,  the  Triumph  of  Alexander  upon  his  Entry 
into  Babylon.  Alex.  Alb.  Equ.  et  Isabel.  Cunio  pictor.  et 
scalp.* 

From  the  dedication  of  this  book  to  Pope  Honorius  IV., 
it  is  deduced  that  these  engravings  must  have  been  executed 
between  1284  and  1285,  inasmuch  as  this  pope  only  enjoyed 
the  pontificate  two  years ;  and  it  is  suggested  that  a  copy  of 
it  might  be  found  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican.  The  narra- 
tive appears  to  be  confirmed  by  many  incidental  circum- 
stances, which  could  not  be  the  invention  either  of  Papillon 
or  his  informer.  The  name  of  Alberico  seems  to  have 
been  a  favorite  with  the  family  of  Cunio,  and  a  Count  of 
that  name  actually  figures  in  history  in  the  very  years  of  the 
presumed  invention ;  a  relative  of  the  twins,  of  course,  not 
the  male  artist  himself. 

The  interval  between  the  time  of  the  twin  Cunio  and  the 
next  mention  of  any  similar  usage  is  very  perplexing ;  but 
upon  examination  it  will  appear  that  that  long  period  was 
not  altogether  a  blank  in  the  art.     The  next  earliest  evidence 

*  It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  twins  may  have  been  directed  in  the  choice 
of  their  subject  by  the  identity  of  the  name  of  the  great  conqueror  with 
that  of  the  brother  ^  at  least  such  coincidences  are  not  without  parallel  in 
the  history  of  literature. 


12  Five  Black  Akts. 

is  a  document  of  the  government  of  Venice,  discovered 
amongst  the  archives  of  the  Company  of  Printers  in  that 
city.  It  bears  the  date  of  1441,  and  as  it  throws  some  de- 
gree of  light  upon  the  controversy  relative  to  the  invention 
of  printing,  it  is  here  given  from  OtiX^y^  History  of  En- 
graving. 

"mcccxli.  October  the  11th.  Whereas  the  art  and 
mystery  of  making  cards  and  printed  figures,  which  is  used 
at  Venice,  has  fallen  into  total  decay ;  and  this  in  conse- 
quence of  the  great  quantity  of  playing-cards,  and  colored 
figures  printed,  which  are  made  out  of  Venice  ;  to  which  evil 
it  is  necessary  to  apply  some  remedy ;  in  order  that  the  said 
artists,  who  are  a  great  many  in  family,  may  find  encourage- 
ment rather  than  foreigners.  Let  it  be  ordered  and  estab- 
lished, according  to  that  which  the  said  masters  have  suppli- 
cated, that  from  this  time  in  future,  no  work  of  the  said  art 
that  is  printed  or  painted  on  cloth  or  on  paper,  that  is  to  say, 
altar-pieces  (or  images),  and  playing-cards,  and  whatever 
other  work  of  the  said  art  is  done  with  a  brush  or  printed, 
shall  be  allowed  to  be  brought  or  imported  into  this  city,  un- 
der the  pain  of  forfeiting  the  works  so  imported,  and  xxx 
livres  and  xii  soldi,  of  which  fine  one-third  shall  go  to  the 
state,  one-third  to  the  Signori  Giustizieri  Vecchi,  to  whom 
the  affair  is  committed,  and  one-third  to  the  accuser.  With 
this  condition,  however,  that  the  artists  who  make  the  said 
works  in  this  city  may  not  expose  the  said  works  to  sale  in  any 
other  place  but  their  own  shops,  under  the  pain  aforesaid, 
except  on  the  day  of  Wednesday  at  St.  Paolo,  and  on  Satur- 
day at  St.  Marco,  under  the  pain  aforesaid.'' 

From  this  it  seems  manifest  that  the  art  of  printing  from 
wood-blocks  was  not  lost,  but,  on  the  contrary,  had  been  so 
long  practiced  as  to  become  an  extensive  and  profitable  busi- 
ness in  Venice,  and  had  spread  over  the  Continent  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  destroy  the  trade  of  the  Venetian  artists.  The 
establishment  of  an  important  manufacture,  and  its  decay, 
necessarily  infer  a  long  period.  From  the  constant  conjunc- 
tion of  the  two  arts  of  painting  and  printing  in  this  docu- 
ment, we  may  infer  (what  the  existence  of  prints  and  cards 
of  later  date  prove)  the  method  in  which  these  figures  and 
cards  were  manufactured,  namely,  that  the  outline  was  first 
printed,  and  that  the  colors  and  shading  were  filled  in  by  the 


Printing — History.  13 

painter  and  illuminator.  The  history  of  playing-cards  now 
becomes  of  some  importance  to  the  narrative.  When  cards 
first  came  into  use  is  uncertain  ;  but  mention  is  made  of  them 
in  the  year  1254,  when  they  were  interdicted  by  St.  Louis 
on  his  return  from  the  Crusade  :  they  were  also  forbidden  by 
the  Council  of  Cologne  in  1281.  In  1299  they  are  express- 
ly mentioned  under  the  name  carte;  and  in  Das  Gulden 
Spiegel,  printed  by  Gunther  Zainer  in  the  year  1472,  it  is 
said  that  cards  first  came  into  Germany  in  1300.  An  old 
French  poet,  who  wrote  "  En  Tan  mil  iij  cent  xxviij,"  has  the 
line,  "  Jouent  aux  dex,  aux  cartes,  aux  tables.''  There  is  no 
evidence  earlier  than  the  Venetian  decree  to  connect  the  art 
of  printing  from  wood-blocks  with  the  art  of  making  cards ; 
but  as  it  is  evident  from  that  document  that  such  connection 
did  exist,  it  is  a  fair  presumption  that  it  originated  not  very 
long  after  the  introduction  of  the  game  ;  and  as  the  sum  paid 
by  Charles  VI.  for  "  troix  jeux  de  cartes  "  was  so  small  as 
fifty-six  Parisian  sols,  it  has  been  conjectured  that  they  must 
have  been  illuminated  prints.  The  Venetian  decree  against 
the  importation  of  painted  and  printed  figures  from  abroad 
now  brings  us  to  the  country  from  which  the  chief  export  was 
made.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  in  the  Low  Countries  the 
manufacture  was  carried  on  to  a  great  extent ;  and  we  shall 
also  find  that  in  Holland  and  Germany,  and  probably  over 
most  of  Europe,  religion  had  called  this  art  to  her  aid  ;  that 
whilst  the  noble  and  wealthy  recreated  the  mind  and  delighted 
the  eye  with  the  exquisite  productions  of  the  scribe  and  illu- 
minator, the  more  humble  were  equally  gratified  with  rude 
and  simple  illustrations  of  interesting  portions  of  Scripture, 
or  pictures  of  favorite  saints.  It  is  probable  that  the  poorer 
classes  hung  up  these  drawings  in  their  dwellings,  where  they 
excited  as  true  and  heart-felt  devotion  as  the  masterpieces  of 
the  painter's  art  in  the  oratories  of  the  great.  There  is  no 
evidence  how  early  the  art  was  practiced,  nor  whether  the 
outlining  the  figures  of  saints  and  sacred  subjects  preceded 
the  printing  of  cards,  or  was  suggested  by  the  latter ;  but  it 
is  certain  that  at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  fifteenth  century  the  practice  was  very  common. 
The  impressions  were  taken  by  means  of  a  burnisher,  the 
gloss  caused  by  the  friction  being  distinctly  visible  on  the 
backs  both  of  cards  and  prints  preserved  to  this  time.     As 


14  Five  Black  Arts. 

facility  in  practice  increased,  a  distich  or  quotation  illustra- 
tive of  the  print  became  a  natural  improvement ;  and  to  this 
was  frequently  added  a  coat  of  arms,  the  name  of  the  saint, 
or  the  title  of  the  subject,  all  in  the  field,  or  over  the  head  of 
the  figure  ;  and,  lastly,  sometimes  a  date.  The  earliest  print 
of  -which  the  date  is  given  -within  the  print  itself,*  is  a  -wood- 
cut of  St.  Christopher  carrying  the  infant  Jesus  across  the 
sea.  It  is  of  folio  size,  and  colored  in  the  manner  of  our 
playing-cards.     At  the  bottom  is  the  inscription — 


or 


ri0tof0ri  facUm  t)ie  quacunquc  Uuv'xs  ittUlcfimo  cctc^ 

Jlla  ncmpc  Me  mortc  mola  non  moricrU.  rr^  tern0. 


It  was  found  in  the  Monastery  of  Buxheim,  near  Meiningen, 
and  is  now  in  the  possession  of  Earl  Spencer. 

The  next  advance  was  obvious.  Instead  of  a  single  block, 
a  series  of  blocks  were  employed,  with  additional  literary 
illustrations ;  and  thus  were  the  first  printed  books  formed. 
The  earliest  and  most  memorable  of  these  are  the  Historia 
Sancti  Johannis  Uvangelistce,  the  Ars  Memorandi,  the 
Ars  Moriendi,  the  Bihlia  Pawperum,  the  Historia  Virginis 
Marice,  and  the  Speculum  Humance  Salvationis.  The  most 
important  of  these  works  is  the  Historice  Veteris  et  JVbvi 
Testamenti  seu  Bihlia  Pauperum — truly  the  Poor  Man's 
Bible.  It  consists  of  forty  leaves  printed  upon  one  side  of 
the  paper  only,  by  friction,  from  as  many  blocks  ;  the  color 
is  brown ;  the  prints  are  placed  opposite  to  each  other,  and 
the  blank  backs  are  pasted  together  into  one  strong  leaf.  The 
cuts  are  about  10  inches  in  height,  and  7J  in  width.  Each 
print  contains  three  sacred  subjects  in  compartments,  and  four 
half-length  figures  of  prophets  in  smaller  divisions,  two  above 

*  There  is  said  to  be  a  print  at  Lyons  with  the  date  1384,  but  its  existence 
is  doubtful.  There  has  lately  been  discovered  a  print  with  the  date  of 
1418,  but  its  authenticity  is  yet  under  discussion.  It  was  found  by  an  in- 
habitant of  Malines,  who,  in  breaking  up  an  old  coffer  which  had  been  used 
to  contain  the  archives  of  the  former  Grand  Conseil  of  Malines,  observed  an 
ancient-looking  print  pasted  inside  the  lid.  The  subject  is  the  Virgin  and 
Child,  with  Saints  Catherine,  Dorothy,  Barbara,  and  Margaret,  within  a 
palisaded  inclosure.  On  the  top-bar  of  the  gate  is  the  date  m :  cccc  °rt)iii. 
distinct  and  unmistakable.  The  design  and  execution  are  very  superior  to 
those  of  the  St.  Christopher  and  the  block-books.  The  London  Athenccum 
of  1844  contains  a  full  description  of  the  print,  and  the  volume  of  1845  a 
facsimile.  The  earliest  dated  print  taken  from  an  engraved  metal  plate  is 
by  Maso  Finiguerra,  1460. 


Printing — History.  15 

and  two  beneath  the  principal  subjects.  Latin  inscriptions 
are  on  either  side  of  the  upper  figures,  rhythmical  verses  on 
either  side  of  the  lower,  and  additional  inscriptions  are  on 
labels  at  the  bottom  of  the  whole.  The  central  subjects  are 
from  the  New  Testament,  the  others  from  the  Old,  and  in  some 
manner  allusive  to  the  former.  There  are  many  copies  of 
tliis  work,  evidently  from  different  blocks,  and  of  different 
dates.  Indeed  it  appears  to  have  been  a  most  popular  book, 
and  was  printed  repeatedly  long  after  the  introduction  of  le- 
gitimate printing ;  there  are  several  editions  in  which  the  in- 
scriptions are  actually  printed  with  movable  types.  The 
exact  date  of  these  curious  works  is  not  ascertained  ;  but  Dr. 
Home  possessed  a  copy  contained  in  one  volume  with  the  Ars 
Moriendi  and  the  Apocalypse^  all  works  of  the  same  style, 
the  binding  of  which  bore  the  date  of  142-.  The  original 
composition  and  design  of  this  work  is  attributed,  and  not 
without  some  show  of  reason,  to  Ansgarius,  who  was  Bishop 
of  Hamburg  and  Bremen  in  the  ninth  century. 

A  similar  book  is  the  Canticles^  a  small  folio  volume  of 
thirty-two  subjects,  two  being  painted  on  each  leaf,  and  on 
only  one  side  of  the  paper,  and  the  leaves  also  pasted  back 
to  back.  It  differs  from  the  Bihlia  Pauperum  in  that  the  in- 
scriptions are  engraven  on  scrolls  fantastically  dispersed 
amongst  the  figures.  This  is  generally  allowed  to  be  of 
somewhat  later  date  than  the  preceding,  and  to  hold  an  in- 
termediate space  between  it  and  the  Speculum  Humanoe 
Salvationist  to  which  a  larger  space  must  be  devoted,  on  ac- 
count of  its  importance  in  the  controversy  relative  to  the  in- 
vention of  printing. 

This  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  block-book  ;  for  whilst  the 
form  of  the  design  and  the  portion  of  Scripture  represented 
are  engraven  on  wood,  the  inscription  is  in  some  cases  en- 
graven on  wood  also,  but  in  others  is  printed  in  movable  type. 
The  Latin  edition,  perhaps  the  first,  consists  of  sixty-three 
leaves,  divided  into  five  unequal  gatherings.  The  subjects 
are  chiefly  from  the  Old  and  New  Testament;  but  some- 
times such  stories  have  been  selected  from  ancient  history  as 
might  seem  in  some  way  appropriate  to  the  events  recorded 
in  sacred  writ.  Each  subject  has  a  short  Latin  inscription 
underneath  it,  and  the  text  occupies  the  remainder  of  the 
page.     Its  size  is  folio  ;  the  impressions  are  taken  with  a 


16  Five  Black  Arts. 

burnisher,  on  one  side  of  the  paper ;  the  color  of  the  ink 
is  brown,  and  the  backs  are  pasted  together,  as  in  the  books 
previously  described.  The  work  is  certainly  of  nearly  the 
same  date,  though  probably  a  little  later,  than  the  Bihlia  Pau~ 
perum  ;  and  it  may  even  have  been  in  part  executed  by  the 
same  artist,  for  in  the  earlier  portions  there  is  so  much  general 
resemblance,  both  in  design  and  execution,  as  to  make  it 
probable  that  the  same  graver  was  employed  in  both.  The 
latter  part,  however,  is  the  work  of  another  artist ;  the  lines 
are  not  so  bold,  and  there  is  an  attempt  at  fineness  of  execu- 
tion, of  shading,  and  of  distance,  which  the  earlier  master 
did  not  attempt ;  the  design,  though  in  better  drawing,  is 
not  so  spirited ;  the  drapery  is  more  correct,  though  not  so 
graceful ;  and  in  fact  the  engraver  was  a  better  workman, 
but  not  so  great  an  artist.  It  must  be  understood,  that  there 
are  numerous  editions  of  this  work,  many  differing  in  essen- 
tial particulars,  but  some  so  nearly  similar  as  to  require  a 
microscopic  eye  to  detect  the  variations.  Of  four  of  these, 
two  are  in  Latin,  two  in  Dutch  ;  and  between  these  four  lies 
the  contest  for  antiquity.  Mr.  Ottley  (whose  beautiful 
Histori/  of  Engraving  contains  a  well-drawn-up  account  of 
his  inquiry,  illustrated  by  most  convincing  examples)  has, 
from  a  minute  and  laborious  examination,  decided  that  the 
two  Latin  and  two  Dutch  are  printed  from  the  self-same 
blocks,  and  by  comparing  them,  and  finding  evidences  of 
fractures  in  the  one  which  do  not  exist  in  the  other,  he  has 
very  satisfactorily  awarded  the  palm  of  antiquity.  First, 
although  the  Latin  inscriptions  in -the  earlier  part  of  the 
first  Latin  edition  (so  called  by  commentators)  are  engraven 
on  blocks  of  wood,  these  blocks  are  not  of  the  same  piece 
as  the  figures,  the  work  having  been  divided  between  two 
artists,  the  one  more  skilled  in  engraving  figures,  and  the 
other  in  engraving  letters.  Secondly^  parts  of  the  engrav- 
ing broken  in  the  first  Dutch  are  perfect  in  the  first  Latin  ; 
parts  imperfect  in  the  first  Latin  are  unbroken  in  the  second 
Dutch,  whilst  the  second  Latin  is  the  most  perfect  of  all ; 
from  which  the  conclusion  is  drawn  that  the  second  Latin 
is  the  most  ancient,  then  the  second  Dutch,  next  the  first 
Latin,  and  lastly  the  first  Dutch.  This  order  of  succession 
i  s  of  considerable  importance,  because  the  first  Latin  is 
printed    with    movable — some    commentators    say    fusil — 


Printing — History.  17 

types.     The  printing  of  this  work  is  claimed  for  Laurence 
Koster. 

But  by  whomsoever  these  curious  works  were  printed,  they 
bring  us  to  the  very  threshold  of  the  invention  of  printing, 
in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word.  Bibliographers  agree  that 
the  pictorial  parts  of  the  Bihlia  Pauperum,  the  Canticles^ 
and  the  Speculum  were  engraven  by  the  same  engraver,  but 
from  the  designs  of  different  artists ;  and  that  while  of  the 
first  Latin  edition  (placed  third  by  Ottley)  the  plates  num- 
bering 1,  2,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9, 10, 11, 13,  14, 16, 17,  21,  22, 
26,  27,  46,  are  printed  entirely  from  wooden  blocks,  the  five 
leaves  of  which  the  preface  consists,  and  the  text  of  the  re- 
maining leaves — (there  are  63  in  all) — are  printed  from  mova- 
ble type.  Therefore,  between  the  printing  of  the  first  edition 
of  these  three  works,  and  the  third  of  the  Speculum^  the  art 
of  printing  with  movable  type  had  become  known  to  the 
printer. 

We  have  now  come  fairly  to  the  practice  of  printing  in  the 
real  sense  of  the  word ;  and  we  have  also  arrived  at  the  long- 
pending,  long-controverted  question,  of  who  invented  it,  and 
where  ?  The  honor  is  disputed  by  as  many  cities  as  con- 
tended for  the  birth  of  Homer.  Only  three  of  these  can 
show  the  slightest  argument  for  their  pretensions :  Harlem, 
Strasburg,  and  Mentz.  Harlem  claims  it  for  her  citizen 
Laurence  Koster,  or  Laurent  Janszoon  Koster  (or  Gustos). 
The  claim  rests  principally  upon  the  narrative  in  the  Ba- 
tavia  of  Hadrianus  Junius,  a  native  of  West  Friesland,  who 
dwelt  at  Harlem.  The  work  was  written  in  1575,  but  not 
published  until  1588.  The  following  is  a  close  translation  of 
the  narrative : 

"  There  lived,  a  hundred  and  twenty-eight  years  ago,  at 
Harlem,  in  houses  sufficiently  splendid  (as  a  workshop,  which 
remains  to  this  day  entire,  can  serve  as  proof),  overlooking 
the  forum  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  royal  palace,  Lau- 
rentius  Joannes,  by  surname  JEdituus^  or  Gustos*  (which  at 

*  In  the  original,  Koster  is  simply  said  to  have  been  surnamed  JEdituus, 
seu  Custos,  but  no  mention  is  made  of  the  Cathedral,  The  statement,  there- 
fore, that  he  was  curtos  of  the  cathedral  is  a  gratuitous  insertion  of  after 
narrators.  The  word  Custos  has  been  Dutchified  into  Coster  or  Koster ; 
but  there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  we  may  not  suppose  that  Cmtos  was  a 
barbarous  Latin  word  for  keeper,  or  constable,  or  any  other  translation 
the  word  will  bear. 

2 


18  Five  Black  Arts. 

that  time  lucrative  and  honorable  office  an  illustrious  family 
of  that  name  held  by  hereditary  right),  the  person  who  now 
seeks  back  by  just  avouchments  and  oaths  the  lapsing  glory 
of  the  invention  of  printing,  nefariously  possessed  and  seized 
upon  by  others  [the  man] ,  with  the  greatest  right  to  be  pre- 
sented with  the  greater  laurel  of  all  honors.  He  by  chance, 
walking  in  a  suburban  grove  (as  was  the  fashion  of  citizens 
in  easy  means  to  do  after  dinner  in  those  days),  began  first 
to  fashion  beech-bark  into  letters,  which  being  impressed 
upon  paper,  reversed  in  the  manner  of  a  seal,  produced  one 
verse,  then  another,  as  his  fancy  pleased,  to  be  for  copies  to 
the  children  of  his  son-in-law ;  which  when  he  had  happily 
accomplished,  he  began  (for  he  was  of  great  and  acute  ge- 
nius) to  agitate  higher  things  in  his  mind,  and  first  of  all  de- 
vised with  his  son-in-law,  Thomas  Peter,  who  left  four  chil- 
dren, all  of  whom  obtained  the  consular  dignity  (a  thing 
which  I  mention  that  all  may  understand  the  art  arose  in  an 
honorable  and  talented,  not  a  servile  family),  a  more  glutinous 
and  tenacious  species  of  writing  ink,  which  he  had  commonly 
used  to  draw  letters ;  thence  he  expressed  entire  figured  pic- 
tures with  characters  added  ;  in  which  sort  I  have  myself 
seen  Adversaria  printed  by  him,  the  traces  of  the  works 
being  only  on  opposite  pages,  not  printed  on  both  sides.  That 
book  was  in  the  vernacular  tongue  by  an  anonymous  author, 
bearing  for  title  Speculum  Nostras  Salutis  ;  in  which  it  is  to 
be  observed  among  the  first  beginnings  of  the  art  (for  never 
any  is  found  and  perfected  at  once),  that  the  reverse  pages 
being  smeared  with  glue,  were  stuck  together,  lest  they, 
being  blank,  should  present  a  deformity.  Afterward  he 
changed  beech-blocks  for  lead ;  afterward  he  made  them  of 
tin,  because  it  was  a  material  more  solid  and  less  flexible, 
and  more  durable :  from  the  relics  which  remained  of  which 
types  very  ancient  wine-flasks  being  made,  they  are  to  this 
day  to  be  seen  in  those  houses  of  Laurentius  which  I  have 
mentioned  looking  upon  the  forum,  inhabited  afterward  by 
his  grandson  Gerard  Thomas,  whom  I  name  for  honor's  sake, 
a  noble  citizen,  who  departed  this  life  a  few  years  ago.  The 
studies  of  men  favoring,  as  it  happened,  the  new  art,  since  a 
new  merchandise  never  before  seen,  brought  buyers  from 
every  side,  with  most  eager  quest,  at  once  the  love  of  the 
art  increased,  the  establishment  increased,  workmen  in  the 


Printing — History.  19 

art  being  added  to  the  family,  the  first  touch  of  evil ;  among 
whom  was  a  certain  Joannes,  either  (as  the  suspicion  is)  that 
Faustus  of  ominous  name,  faithless  and  unlucky  to  his  master, 
or  some  other  of  the  same  name,  I  do  not  greatly  care  which, 
because  I  am  unwilling  to  disquiet  the  shades  of  the  silenced, 
touched  with  the  plague  of  conscience  while  they  lived. 
He  being  sworn  by  oath  to  the  processes  of  printing,  after 
he  had  (as  he  thought)  learned  thoroughly  the  art  of  put- 
ting the  characters  together,  the  knowledge  of  fusil  types, 
and  whatever  else  may  relate  to  the  matter,  taking  an  op- 
portunity, than  which  he  could  not  have  found  one  more  fit, 
on  the  very  eve  which  is  sacred  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  on 
which  all  in  common  are  accustomed  to  labor  at  the  sacred 
ceremonies,  stole  the  whole  materials,*  tied  up  a  package  of 
the  instruments  of  his  master  used  in  that  art ;  thence  with 
a  servant  hurried  from  the  house,  went  in  the  beginning  to 
Amsterdam,  thence  to  Cologne,  until  he  arrived  at  Mayence, 
as  to  the  altar  of  an  asylum,  where  he  might  live  safe  beyond 
the  reach  of  arrows  (as  the  saying  is),  and  having  opened  an 
office,  enjoyed  the  rich  fruit  of  his  robberies.  Indeed,  from 
it,  in  the  space  of  the  (or  a  turning)  year,  in  the  year  1442 
from  the  birth  of  Christ,  with  the  same  types  which  Lauren- 
tius  had  used  at  Harlem,  it  is  certain  that  he  produced  to 
light  the  Doctrinale  of  Alexander  Gallus,  which  grammar 
was  then  in  most  famous  use,  with  the  Tractates  of  Peter 
Hispanus,  his  first  productions.  These  are,  for  the  most  part, 
things  which  I  have  formerly  heard  from  aged  men  worthy  of 
belief,  who  have  received  them  as  things  delivered  from  hand 
to  hand,  as  a  torch  in  a  race,  and  have  found  others  relating 
and  attesting  the  same  things.  I  remember  that  Nicholaus 
Galius,  the  instructor  of  my  youth,  a  man  with  iron  memory, 
and  venerable  for  his  long  years,  related  to  me,  that  when 
a  boy  he  had  heard,  not  once  only,  a  certain  Cornelius, 
a  bookbinder,  and  rendered  serious  by  age,  nor  less  than 
eighty  years  old  (who  had  lived  as  an  underworkman  in  that 
office),  relating  with  much  mental  anger,  and  with  fervor, 
the  course  of  the  proceeding,  the  manner  of  the  invention, 
(as  he  had  received  it  from  his  master),  the  improvement 

*  Or  whatever  else  choragium  may  mean ;  literally  it  signifies  the  proper- 
ties of  a  theater. 


20  Five  Black  Arts. 

and  increase  of  the  art,  and  other  things  of  the  kind ;  and 
that  the  tears  would  burst  from  him  against  his  will  at  the 
shame  of  the  aflfair,  as  often  as  he  talked  of  the  robbery. 
Which  things  do  not  differ  from  the  words  of  Quirinus  Tale- 
sius  Con.,  who  confessed  to  me  that  he  had  formerly  the 
same  from  the  mouth  of  the  same  bookbinder." 

Beyond  this  narrative  of  Hadrian  Junius  there  is  little,  or 
rather  no  testimony  to  the  truth  of  Roster's  claim,  all  subse- 
quent argument  being  either  drawn  from  or  referred  to  this 
statement.  Many  very  learned  bibliographers  have  given 
full  credence  to  Hadrian ;  while  others  not  less  acute  abso- 
lutely deny  Koster  any  pretense  whatever — Santander  call- 
ing in  question  his  very  existence ;  and  there  is  a  third  party 
who,  being  unable  to  decide  between  the  opposing  arguments, 
and  willing  to  take  refuge  in  a  middle  course,  allow  to  Koster 
the  credit  of  having  invented  printing  from  blocks,  but  assign 
to  his  rivals  that  of  printing  from  movable  types. 

The  whole  argument  may,  however,  be  reduced  into  a  rea- 
sonable compass.  The  probability  of  Hadrian's  narrative 
will  naturally  be  the  subject  of  inquiry.  First^  the  round- 
about way  in  which  this  hearsay  evidence  reached  Hadrian, 
is  in  itself  an  unsatisfactory  circumstance.  Little  belief  can 
be  accorded  to  an  uncertain  bookbinder,  even  had  any  cir- 
cumstances been  adduced  besides  the  name  Cornelius,  by 
which  this  bookbinder  could  be  identified.  Secondly,  Ta- 
lesius  was  many  years  secretary  to  Erasmus,  who,  although 
a  Dutchman  and  resident  in  Holland,  repeatedly  and  unhesi- 
tatingly ascribes  the  invention  to  John  Gutenberg  of  Stras- 
burg  at  Mentz.*  It  is  not  at  all  probable  that,  had  Erasmus 
ever  heard  of  this  story,  or  given  the  slightest  credence  to 
it  if  he  had,  he  would  have  omitted  some  mention  of  a  cir- 
cumstance so  gratifying  to  his  national  vanity ;  or  that  he 
should  have  remained  in  ignorance  of  a  story  well  known  to 
his  secretary,  and  commonly  bruited  about,  and  therefore 
known  to  some  of  the  learned  men  amongst  whom  Erasmus 
lived.     Thirdly^  the  story  of  the  engraving  on  beech-bark 

*  Anno  Christi  1440.  Magnum  quoddam  ac  pene  divinum  beneficinm 
coUatum  est  universo  terrarum  orbi,  a  Johanne  Gutenberg  Argentinensi, 
novo  scribendi  genera  reperto.  Is  cum  primus  artem  impressoriam,  quern 
Latini  vocant  excusoriam,  in  urbe  Argentinensi  invenit ;  inde  Moguntiam 
veniens  eandem  feliciter  complevit.    {Fpit.  Rerum  Script.  1502,  cap.  95.) 


Printing — History.  21 

accidentally,  when  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  art  of  taking 
impressions  from  wood-blocks  of  the  figures  of  cards  and  of 
saints  and  sacred  subjects,  with  religious  and  legendary  in- 
scriptions, had  been  known  and  extensively  practiced,  not 
only  in  Italy  and  Germany,  but  in  Holland  itself,  for  more 
than  a  century,  is  absurd.  Fourthly^  every  author  who  has 
written  upon  the  matter  has  given  up  all  claim  on  Koster's 
behalf  for  the  invention  of  cast  type,  the  evidence  in  favor 
of  others  being  too  strong  to  be  got  over.  Fifthly^  the  tale 
of  the  conversion  of  the  relics  of  these  types  into  drinking- 
cups,  which  were  yet  to  be  seen  (1575),  is  discredited  by 
the  circumstance  that  no  one  has  since  seen  or  heard  of  them, 
although  a  controversy  for  the  honor  of  a  discovery  in  which 
they  would  have  been  evidence,  was  even  then  and  has  ever 
since  raged  furiously.  Sixthly^  the  story  of  John  Fust  hav- 
ing stolen  all  his  printing  materials  on  the  eve  of  Christmas, 
and  decamped,  first  to  Amsterdam,  then  to  Cologne,  and  lastly 
to  Mentz,  and  his  publishing  there  within  the  same  year,  is 
self-contradictory  ;  for  type  is  not  a  very  portable  commod- 
ity; nor  would  he  easily  have  escaped  pursuit  at  Amster- 
dam, a  town  under  the  same  government.  Again,  John 
Fust  was  originally  no  printer,  but  a  wealthy  goldsmith  of 
Mentz,  and  certainly  never  worked  as  any  printer's  journey- 
man. Indeed  this  is  such  a  palpable  misstatement,  that 
commentators  upon  Hadrian  have  boldly  supposed  that  the 
thief  was  John  Gutenberg — not  he  of  Mentz,  but  a  brother, 
also  named  John.  Unfortunately  Gutenberg's  brother  was 
not  named  John,  but  Friele ;  there  was  a  cousin  John  ;  but 
the  only  evidence  by  which  we  become  aware  of  the  existence 
of  these  persons  excludes  the  supposition  that  either  prac- 
ticed the  art ;  nor  is  it  at  all  likely  that  members  of  a  noble 
family,  and  wealthy  men,  should  have  worked  in  the  service 
of  any  man.  If  it  should  be  asserted  that  it  was  the  John 
Gutenberg,  his  time  is  so  well  accounted  for  that  it  is  impos- 
sible, since  he  was  then  resident  at  Strasburg,  and  never  was 
at  Amsterdam  or  Cologne.  Thus,  then,  the  narrative  of 
Hadrian  Junius  appears  upon  examination  to  be  utterly  in- 
credible, being  at  once  at  variance  with  itself  and  with  all 
probability. 

/Arguments  for   or  against  the  claim  of  Harlem  may  be 
urged  not  derived  from  this  narrative.     Although  these  cir- 


22  Five  Black  Arts. 

cumstances  are  not  to  be  believed,  the  main  facts  Twa^  never- 
theless be  correct.  Koster  may  have  printed  the  Speculuyn 
and  other  block-books  attributed  to  him.  Ottley  says  that 
they  were  certainly  printed  in  Holland,  for  that  the  types  are 
not  those  used  in  Germany,  but  closely  resembled  such  as 
■were  afterward  cut  or  cast  in  Holland;  and  that  they  are  of 
greater  antiquity  than  any  books  printed  by  those  who  after- 
ward used  the  art  in  the  Low  Countries.  He  also  attempts 
to  show,  by  the  water-marks  in  the  paper,  that  the  works  in 
question  were  produced  in  these  parts.  Water-marks,  how- 
ever, and  some  bearing  a  general  resemblance  to  these,  were 
common  in  the  papers  used  by  printers  of  Cologne,  Louvain, 
and  elsewhere  ;  and  the  argument  is  worth  little  or  nothing, 
for  no  evidence  can  be  given  even  of  the  dates  of  these  works, 
and  much  less  of  the  printer.  The  Speculum  was  printed 
again  and  again  after  the  invention  of  letter-press  printing  ; 
nor  is  there  the  slightest  evidence,  supposing  these  assertions 
to  be  correct,  to  connect  them  with  the  name  of  Koster.  It 
is  a  conclusive  argument  against  him,  that  those  other  works 
ascribed  to  him  and  his  descendants  are  executed  with  the 
self-same  types  used  at  Utrecht  in  1473  by  Ketelaer  and 
De  Leempt.  Van  Mander,  who  lived  at  Harlem  in  1580,  in 
his  History  of  the  Lives  of  Dutch  Painters  and  JEngravers^ 
treats  the  claim  of  Harlem  with  contempt ;  for,  speaking  of 
printing,  he  describes  it  as  an  art  "  of  which  Harlem,  with 
much  presumption,  arrogates  to  herself  the  honor  of  the  in- 
vention ; "  nor  does  he  make  the  slightest  mention  of  his  fa- 
mous fellow-citizen.  There  is  not  the  least  evidence  that  his 
three  grandsons  (not/owr,  as  Hadrian  says)  ever  carried  on 
his  business ;  for  where  are  their  works  ?  and  in  their  time 
printers  had  become  so  proud  of  their  art  as  not  only  to  put 
their  names  to  every  work,  but  even  to  add  a  long  history  of 
their  undertaking  and  progress.  Where  are  the  books 
ascribed  to  them  ?  what  mention  is  made  of  them  by  their 
cotemporaries?  In  a  subsequent  part  of  this  article  it  will 
be  seen  that  Caxton,  the  first  English  printer,  is  asserted  to 
have  been  sent  to  Harlem  to  learn  the  art,  and  if  possible  to 
carry  off  one  of  the  workmen.  These  things  being  also  matter 
of  controversy,  cannot  be  used  in  argument ;  nevertheless  it  is 
of  some  value  that  Caxton,  who,  supposing  it  to  be  true, 
would  be  an  excellent  witness  in  favor  of  Harlem,  upon  all 


Printing — Histoey.  23 

occasions  refers  the  invention  to  Gutenberg,  and  makes  no 
mention  whatever  of  Harlem  or  Koster. 

Santander  labors  to  disprove  the  very  existence  of  any 
such  person.  But  there  is  no  necessity  to  go  so  far  as  San- 
tander: we  may  allow  Koster's  identity;  we  may  even 
allow  that  he  practiced  the  art  of  taking  impressions  from 
wood-blocks ;  but  this  is  very  different  from  acknowledging 
his  claim  to  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing.  The  most 
strenuous  champion  of  Koster  is  Meerman,  an  eminent 
French  bibliographer  of  the  last  century,  who,  in  his  Origi- 
nes  Tf/pographicce,  published  at  the  Hague  in  1765,  strongly 
maintains  this  narrative  of  Hadrian ;  which  is  not  a  little 
singular,  seeing  that  the  Newcastle  Typographical  Society 
published  a  letter  from  him  to  Wagenaar,  of  eight  years*  prior 
date,  in  which  he  expresses  a  precisely  contrary  opinion.  He 
calls  Seitz's  (Hadrian's)  story  a  mere  supposition,  and  the 
chronology  a  romantic  invention ;  gives  to  the  Speculum  the 
date  of  1470  as  the  earliest  possible ;  attributes  the  honor  to 
Gutenberg,  and  incidentally  mentions  his  intention  of  publish- 
ing a  pamphlet  on  the  subject.  Notwithstanding  this,  in  his 
work,  without  any  new  fact  whatever,  he  accredits  Hadrian's 
story,  finds  consistency  in  the  dates,  believes  the  Speculum, 
and  denies  John  Gutenberg — completely  reversing  his  pre- 
vious conclusion,  though  his  premises  remain  the  same. 

The  statement  of  Ulric  Zell,  given  in  the  Cologne  Chron- 
icle, though  always  referred  to  by  bibliographers,  has  not 
received  the  attention  it  seems  to  deserve.  Ulric  Zell  is 
supposed  to  have  been  one  of  the  workmen  employed  in  the 
otEce  of  Fust  and  Schoeffer  at  Mentz,  when  that  city  was 
taken  by  the  Count  of  Nassau  in  1462.  On  this  event  Zell 
betook  himself  to  Cologne,  where  he  established  a  press,  from 
which  in  1467  he  issued  his  first  work.  He  continued  to  carry 
on  the  art  in  this  city  for  many  years.  The  Cologne  Chroni- 
cle was  printed  by  Koelhoff  in  1499.  Under  the  head  of  "  In- 
vention of  Printing,"  it  contains  an  account  of  its  discovery, 
communicated  by  Ulric  Zell,  which,  considering  the  place 
where  it  was  published,  the  nearness  of  the  time,  and  the 
intimate  connection  of  the  narrator  with  the  first  movements 
of  the  art,  carries  great  weight. 

''Item,  this  most  worthy  art  aforesaid  [was]  first  of  all 
invented  in  Germany,  at  Mayence  on  the  Rhine ;  and  that  is 


24  PiVE  Black  Arts. 

a  great  honor  to  the  German  nation,  that  such  ingenious 
people  are  to  be  found  there ;  and  that  happened  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  1440. 

"  Item^  although  the  art  was  invented  at  Mayence  as  afore- 
said, in  the  manner  it  is  now  commonly  used,  yet  the  first  idea 
originated  in  Holland  from  the  Donatuses,  which  were  printed 
there  even  before  that  time ;  and  from  out  of  them  has  been 
taken  the  beginning  of  the  aforesaid  art,  and  has  been  in- 
vented much  more  masterly  and  cunningly  than  it  was  ac- 
cording to  that  same  method,  and  is  become  more  and  more 
ingenious." 

Now  we  know  that  the  Donatuses  were  block-books  of  a 
rude  form,  in  no  way  resembling  the  art  used  by  Zell  and  his 
cotemporaries ;  and  such  as  they  are,  there  is  no  evidence 
that  Koster  printed  any  one  of  them. 

All  evidence,  then,  and  the  general  consent  of  the  learned, 
in  failure  of  Koster,  unhesitatingly  ascribe  this  invention  to 

John  Gutenberg,  sumamed  Genzfleisch,  Gensfleisch,  or 
Gensefleisch,  von  Solgenloch  or  Sorgenloch.  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  Mentz,  and  of  a  noble  family,  possessed  of  con- 
siderable property  in  various  places  in  the  neighborhood. 
Fortunately  the  life  of  Gutenberg  does  not  rest  merely  upon 
hearsay  evidence,  or  the  doubtful  guesses  of  bibliographers 
from  dateless  wood-cuts ;  legal  documents  supply  most  import- 
ant information.  It  appears  that,  for  some  reasons  unknown, 
he  resided  for  many  years  at  Strasburg,  and  had  even  ac- 
quired rights  of  citizenship.  The  first  document  presents 
him  in  no  amiable  light.  It  is  a  lawsuit  instituted  to  compel 
him  to  perform  his  marriage-contract  with  Anne  von  Isernen 
Thiir ;  and  it  would  appear  that  he  was  compelled  to  make 
good  his  promise,  the  name  of  Anne  Gutenberg  being  found 
in  the  same  register  of  the  nobility  liable  to  the  wine-duty  in 
the  city  of  Strasburg,  in  which  Gutenberg's  name  also  ap- 
pears. The  next  document  is  so  curious  that  an  ample  ab- 
stract of  it  cannot  but  be  interesting. 

It  appears  that  he  had  contracted  an  engagement  with 
Andrew  Dritzehen,  John  Rifib,  and  Andrew  Heilmann,  to 
instruct  them  in  the  secrets  of  certain  arts,  and  had  entered 
into  partnership  with  them  for  their  better  advantage.  An- 
drew Dritzehen  and  Andrew  Heilmann  having  called  upon 
him  one  day,  perceived  that  he  was  engaged  in  a  wonderful 


Printing — History. 

and  unknown  art,  the  secret  of  which  he  was  desirous  of 
keeping  to  himself;  that,  moved  by  their  importunities,  he 
consented  to  enter  into  partnership  with  them  for  the  term  of 
five  years,  on  two  conditions — first,  that  they  should  pay  him 
the  sum  of  250  florins,  100  immediately,  and  the  remainder 
at  a  certain  fixed  period ;  second,  that  if  any  one  of  the 
partners  should  die  during  the  term  of  the  copartnership,  the 
survivors  should  pay  to  his  heirs  the  sum  of  100  florins,  in 
consideration  of  which  the  efiects  should  become  the  property 
of  the  surviving  partners.  Andrew  Dritzehen  died  before 
the  expiration  of  the  period  agreed  on,  being  still  indebted 
to  Gutenberg  in  the  sum  of  85  florins.  George  and  Nicho- 
las, brothers  of  the  deceased,  demanded  to  be  admitted  to 
the  partnership,  and  on  refusal,  brought  an  action  against 
Gutenberg  as  principal  partner.  The  magistrates  gave  judg- 
ment on  the  12th  of  December,  1439,  relieving  Gutenberg 
from  the  demand  of  the  sum  of  15  florins,  being  the  difference 
of  the  sum  of  100  florins,  stipulated  to  be  paid  to  the  heirs 
of  a  deceasing  partner,  and  the  sum  of  85  florins  due  to 
Gutenberg  by  Andrew  on  the  original  contract.  The  follow- 
ing evidence  was  produced  on  the  trial : 

"  Anna,  the  wife  of  John  Schultheiss  (hohman,  marchand 
de  hois'),  deposed,  that  on  one  occasion  Nicholas  Beildeck 
came  to  her  house  to  Nicholas  Dreizehen,  her  relation,  and 
said  to  him,  '  My  Nicholas  Dreizehen,  Andrew  Dreizehen,  of 
happy  memory,  has  placed  four  stucJce  (pages  ?)  in  a  press, 
which  Gutenberg  has  desired  that  you  will  take  away  and 
them  from  one  another  put  off,  that  no  man  may  know  what 
it  may  be,  for  he  is  not  willing  that  any  one  should  see.' 

"  Also  John  Schultheiss  says,  that  Laurence  Beildeck 
sometime  came  to  his  house  to  Nicholas  Dreizehen,  when 
Andrew  Dreizehen  his  brother  was  dead,  and  that  the  said 
Laurence  Beildeck  thus  spoke  to  said  Nicholas  Dreizehen : 
'  Andrew  Dreizehen,  your  brother,  now  happy,  had  four 
stucke  lying  underneath  in  a  press.  Therefore  John  Guten- 
berg desires  you  that  you  will  take  them  therefrom  and 
upon  the  presses  take  from  one  another  so  that  no  man  can 
see  what  that  is.' 

"  Also  Conrad  Sahspach  deposed,  that  sometime  Andrew 
Heilmann  came  to  him  upon  the  Street  of  Merchants  and 
said,  '  Dear  Conrad,  as  Andrew  Dreizehen  is  departed,  as 


26  Five  Black  Arts. 

you  made  the  presses,  and  know  about  the  matter,  do  you  go 
thither,  and  take  the  stucJce  from  the  presses,  and  thoroughly 
separate  them  from  one  another,  so  that  no  man  may  know 
what  it  is.' 

"  Laurence  Beildeck  says  that  he  was  sent  by  John  Guten- 
berg to  Nicholas  Dreizehen,  after  the  death  of  Andrew  his 
brother,  to  say  to  him,  '  That  he  the  presses  which  he  under 
his  care  has  to  no  man  should  show  ;  which  also  this  witness 
did.  And  he  further  conversed  with  me,  and  said  he  should 
take  so  much  trouble  as  to  go  to  the  presses,  and  with  the  two 
screws  upon  or  from  them  so  separate  the  stucke  from  one 
another,  and  these  stucke  he  should  then  in  the  presses  [or, 
on  the  presses]  separate,  so  that  thereafter  no  man  can  see 
nor  understand.' 

"  The  same  witness  also  said  that  he  knew  well  that  Guten- 
berg, a  little  before  the  feast  of  the  Nativity,  had  sent  his 
servant  to  both  Andrews  to  take  away  all  stucke,  which  were 
broken  up  in  his  sight,  that  none  of  them  might  be  found  per- 
fect. Moreover,  after  the  death  of  Andrew,  this  witness  was 
not  ignorant  that  many  were  desirous  of  seeing  the  presses, 
and  that  Gutenberg  had  commanded  that  some  one  should  be 
sent  who  might  hinder  any  one  from  seeing  the  presses,  and 
that  his  servant  was  sent  to  break  them  up. 

"  Also  John  Dunne,  goldsmith,  said,  that  three  years  or 
thereabouts  previous  he  had  received  from  Gutenberg  about 
300  florins  for  materials  relating  to  printing."  * 

From  this  curious  document  may  be  learnt,  that  separate 
types  were  used  ;  for  if  they  were  blocks  arranged  so  as  to 
print  four  pages,  how  could  they  be  so  pulled  to  pieces  that 
no  one  should  know  what  they  were,  or  how  could  the  ab- 
straction of  two  screws  cause  them  to  fall  to  pieces  ?  It  ap- 
pears that  some  sort  of  presses  were  used,  and  the  transfers 
no  longer  taken  by  a  burnisher  or  roller ;  and,  lastly,  that 
the  art  was  still  a  great  secret  at  the  time  when  Koster  was 
at  the  point  of  death.  Hence  it  is  manifest  that  the  inge- 
nuity of  Gutenberg  had  made  a  vast  advance  from  the  rude 
methods  of  the  time,  and  had  in  fact  invented  a  new  and 
hitherto  unknown  art. 

*  The  original  German  text  of  these  documents  is  given  in  M.  Leon  de 
Laborde's  interesting  tracts  on  the  origin  of  printing. 


Printing — History.  27 

These  documents  would  be  decisive  in  favor  of  Strasburg 
as  the  place  in  which  printing  was  invented,  had  it  appeared 
that  any  effects  were  produced  by  this  establishment.  This, 
however,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  the  case,  as  Gutenberg 
and  his  successors  make  no  mention  of  the  fact,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  claim  for  themselves  the  production  of  the  first 
book  at  Mentz.  Indeed  the  partnership  appears  to  have  ex- 
pired without  any  attempt  at  entering  into  fresh  engage- 
ments ;  for,  about  the  year  1450,  Gutenberg  returned  to  his 
native  city  with  all  his  materials,  without  any  opposition  from 
his  partner.  In  this  place  he  entered  into  partnership  with 
John  Fust,  a  wealthy  goldsmith  and  citizen,  who  engaged, 
upon  being  taught  the  secrets  of  the  art  (a  fact  that  com- 
pletely overthrows  the  fable  of  his  having  been  one  of  Kos- 
ter's  workmen,  and  of  his  having  stolen  his  types),  and  being 
admitted  into  a  participation  of  the  profits,  to  advance  the 
necessary  funds ;  and  he  did  accordingly  advance  the  consid- 
erable sum  of  2020  florins.  The  new  partnership  immedi- 
ately commenced  operations,  and  hired  a  house  called  Zum 
Jungen,  and  took  into  their  employ  Peter  Schoeffer  and 
others.  Their  subsequent  operations  we  again  find  curiously 
chronicled  in  the  records  of  another  lawsuit,*  in  which 
Gutenberg  was  soon  engaged  with  his  new  ally ;  for  Fust, 
dissatisfied  with  their  proceedings,  sought  to  recover  from 
Gutenberg  money  advanced,  with  interest,  including  800 
florins  of  the  sum  advanced  in  virtue  of  the  deed  of  partner- 
ship. Gutenberg  in  defense  alleged,  that  the  800  florins  had 
not  been  paid  at  once,  as  stipulated  ;  and  that  they  had  been 
expended  in  preparation  for  the  work  (apparently  meaning 
thereby  that  this  sum  of  money  should  have  been  paid  down 
for  his  own  use,  in  consideration  of  his  communicating  the 
secrets  of  his  art,  and  that  instead  of  so  applying  it  to  his 
private  purposes,  he  had  expended  it  for  the  joint  benefit)  ; 
whilst,  as  to  the  other  sums,  he  off'ered  to  give  an  account  of 
their  appropriation,  but  denied  that  he  was  liable  for  the  in- 
terest. The  judges  awarded  that  Gutenberg  should  pay  the 
interest,  as  well  as  the  part  which  his  accounts  showed  he 
had  applied  to  his  individual  use.     This  decision  took  place 

*  Wolfii  Monumenta  Typographica.     Fournier,  Origine  de  V Imprimerie. 


28  Five  Black  Aets. 

on  the  6th  of  November,  1455.  Upon  this,  Fust  obtained 
from  the  public  notary  the  following  document : 

"  To  the  Glory  of  God,  Amen.  Be  it  known  unto  all 
those  who  shall  see  or  hear  read  this  instrument,  that  in  the 
year  of  Our  Lord  1455,  third  indiction,  on  Thursday  the 
sixth  day  of  November,  the  first  year  of  the  Pontificate  of 
our  very  Holy  Father  the  Pope  Calixtus  III.,  appeared  here 
at  Mayence,  in  the  great  parlor  of  the  Barefooted  Friars, 
between  eleven  o'clock  and  midday,  before  me,  the  Notary, 
and  the  undersigned  witnesses,  the  honorable  and  discrete 
person,  James  Fust,  citizen  of  Mayence,  who,  in  the  name 
of  his  brother,  John  Fust,  also  present,  has  said  and  de- 
clared clearly,  that  on  this  same  day,  and  at  the  present  hour, 
and  in  the  same  parlor  of  the  Barefooted  Friars,  John 
Gutenberg  should  see  and  hear  taken  by  John  Fust  an  oath, 
conformable  to  the  sentence  pronounced  between  them.  And 
this  sentence  read  in  the  presence  of  the  honorable  Henry 
Ganter,  Curd  of  St.  Christopher  of  Mayence,  of  Henry 
Kefier,  and  De  Bechtoff  de  Hanaw,  servant  and  valet  of  the 
said  Gutenberg ;  John  Fust,  placing  his  hand  upon  the  Holy 
Evangelists,  has  sworn  between  the  hands  of  me,  the  Notary 
Public,  conformable  to  the  sentence  pronounced,  and  to  a 
letter  which  he  has  sent  to  me,  and  has  taken  the  following 
oath,  word  for  word :  I,  John  Fust,  have  borrowed  1550 
florins  which  I  have  transmitted  to  John  Gutenberg,  which 
have  been  employed  for  our  common  labor,  and  of  which  I 
have  paid  the  rent  and  annual  interest,  of  which  I  still  owe 
a  part.  Reckoning,  therefore,  for  each  hundred  florins  bor- 
rowed, as  above  is  recited,  six  florins  per  annum,  I  demand 
of  him  the  repayment  and  the  interest,  conformably  to  the 
sentence  pronounced  ;  which  I  will  prove  in  equity  to  be  le- 
gal, in  consequence  of  my  claim  upon  the  said  John  Guten- 
berg. In  presence  of  the  honorable  Henry  Gunter,  of 
Henry  Keffer,  and  of  Bechtoff  de  Hanaw  aforesaid,  John 
Fust  has  demanded  of  me  an  authentic  instrument,  to  serve 
him  as  much  and  as  often  as  he  hath  need,  in  the  faith  of 
which  I  have  signed  this  instrument,  and  have  set  thereto  my 
seal." 

From  this  it  would  appear  (indeed  the  mortgage  of  his 
printing  materials  to  Fust,  mentioned  in  this  document, 
proves)  that  Gutenberg  had  expended  the  whole  of  his  con- 


Prutting — History. 

siderable  private  fortune  in  his  experiments,  and  had  fallen 
into  the  power  of  his  more  wealthy  associate  ;  for  in  conse- 
quence of  this  judgment,  and  owing  probably  to  his  being 
unable  to  repay  the  sums  demanded,  the  whole  of  his  mate- 
rials, constructed  with  so  much  perseverance,  fell  into  Fust's 
hands;  for  the  initial  letters  used  by  Gutenberg  and  his 
partners,  in  works  known  and  supposed  to  have  been  executed 
between  1450  and  1455,  are  likewise  used  by  Fust  and 
Schoeffer  in  the  Psalter  of  1457  and  1459.  After  such  a 
mortifying  result  of  so  many  years'  labor,  it  would  have 
been  no  matter  for  wonder  had  Gutenberg  abandoned  the 
unprofitable  pursuit.  On  the  contrary,  he  appears  to  have 
immediately  started  anew  with  fresh  vigor,  and  this  time  with 
success.  Another  legal  document  gives  curious  informa- 
tion: 

"  We,  Henne  (John)  Genszfleisch  de  Sulgeloch,  named 
Gudinburg,  and  Friele  Genszfleisch,  brothers,  do  affirm  and 
publicly  declare  by  these  presents,  and  make  known  to  all, 
,that,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  our  dear  cousins,  John, 
and  Friele,  and  Pedirmann  Genszfleisch,  brothers,  of  Mentz, 
we  have  renounced  and  do  renounce,  by  these  presents,  for 
us  and  for  our  heirs,  simply,  totally,  and  at  once,  without 
fraud  or  deceit,  all  the  property  which  has  passed  by  means 
of  our  sister  Hebele,  to  the  convent  of  St.  Claire  of  Mentz, 
in  which  she  has  become  a  nun,  whether  the  said  property 
has  come  to  it  on  the  part  of  our  father  Henne  Genszfleisch, 
who  gave  it  himself,  or  in  whatsoever  manner  the  property 
may  have  come  to  it,  whether  in  grain,  ready  money,  furni- 
ture, jewels,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  that  the  respectable 
nuns,  the  abbess,  and  sisters  of  the  said  convent,  have  re- 
ceived in  common  or  individually,  or  other  persons  of  the 
convent  (have  received),  from  the  said  Hebele,  be  it  little  or 
much ;  and  we  have  promised  and  do  promise,  by  these  pres- 
ents, in  good  faith,  for  us  and  for  our  heirs,  that  neither  we, 
nor  any  person  on  our  part,  nor  yet  our  said  cousins,  nor  any 
of  their  heirs,  nor  any  person  on  their  part,  shall  either  de- 
mand, gain,  nor  claim  of  the  said  convent,  nor  of  the  abbess, 
nor  of  the  convent  in  general,  nor  of  the  persons  who  may 
be  found  therein  individually,  the  said  property,  of  whatever 
kind  it  may  be,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  and  that  we  will 
never  demand  it  again,  either  through  an  ecclesiastical  or 


30  Five  Black  Arts. 

civil  court,  or  without  the  aid  of  the  law  ;  and  that  neither 
we  nor  our  heirs  will  ever  molest  the  said  convent,  either  by 
words  or  deeds,  either  secretly  or  publicly,  in  any  manner. 
And  as  to  the  books  which  I,  the  said  Henne,  have  given  to 
the  library  of  the  convent,  they  are  to  remain  there  always 
and  forever  ;  and  I,  the  said  Henne,  propose  also  to  give  in 
future,  without  disguise,  to  the  library  of  the  said  convent, 
for  the  use  of  the  present  and  future  nuns,  for  their  religious 
worship,  either  for  reading  or  chanting,  or  in  whatever 
manner  they  may  wish  to  make  use  of  them  according  to  the 
rules  of  their  order,  all  the  books  which  JT,  the  said  Henne, 
have  printed  up  to  this  hour,  or  which  I  shall  hereafter  print, 
in  such  quantities  as  they  may  wish  to  make  use  of ;  and  for 
this  the  said  abbess,  the  successors  and  nuns  of  the  said 
convent  of  St.  Claire,  have  declared  and  promised  to  acquit 
me  and  my  heirs  of  the  claim  which  my  sister  Hebele  had  to 
the  sixty  florins,  which  I  and  my  said  brother  Friele  had 
promised  to  pay  and  deliver  to  the  said  Hebele,  as  her  por- 
tion and  share  arising  from  the  house  which  Henne  our 
father,  assigned  to  him  for  his  share,  in  virtue  of  the  writings 
which  were  drawn  up  thereupon,  without  fraud  or  deceit. 
And  in  order  that  this  may  be  observed  by  us  and  by  our 
heirs,  steadfastly  and  to  its  full  extent,  we  have  given  the 
said  nuns  and  their  convent  and  order  these  present  writings, 
sealed  with  our  seals.  Signed  and  delivered  the  year  of  the 
birth  of  J.  C.  1459,  on  the  day  of  St.  Margaret." 

From  this  it  will  appear,  that  his  new  establishment  had 
actually  produced  the  long  wished-for  effect.  He  appears  to 
have  carried  on  the  business  ten  years ;  for  in  1465  he  en- 
tered into  the  service  of  Elector  Adolphus  of  Nassau,  as 
one  of  his  band  of  gentlemen  pensioners,  with  a  handsome 
salary,  as  appears  from  the  letters-patent,  dated  the  17th 
January,  1465,  and  finally  abandoned  the  pursuit  of  an  art 
which,  though  it  caused  him  infinite  trouble  and  vexation,  has 
been  more  effectual  in  preserving  his  name  and  the  memory 
of  his  acts,  than  all  the  warlike  deeds  and  great  achieve- 
ments of  his  renowned  master  and  all  his  house.  Gutenberg 
died  on  the  24th  of  February,  1468.  His  printing-office 
and  materials  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  Conrad  Humery, 
syndic  of  Mentz,  who  had  probably  assisted  him  with  money, 
and  who  appears  to  have  been  in  some  degree  his  partner. 


Printing — History.  31 

He  afterward  sold  them  to  Nicholas  Bechtermunze  of  El- 
field,  whose  works  are  greatly  sought  after  bj  the  curious,  as 
they  afford  much  proof,  by  collation,  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  works  attributed  to  his  great  predecessor. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  record  of  the  early  life 
of  John  Fust  or  Peter  Schceffer  before  their  partnership 
with  Gutenberg,  save  that  the  former  was  a  wealthy  gold- 
smith and  an  ingenious  man,  and  that  Schceffer,  surnamed 
de  Gernsheim,  was  a  scribe.  It  is  very  likely  that  the  com- 
bination of  character  and  qualifications  of  these  three  men 
may  afford  a  good  clue  to  the  wonderful  taste  and  beauty 
which  distinguish  the  works  issued  from  their  press,  and  con- 
sequently to  the  great  general  improvement  of  the  art  during 
their  life.  The  ingenuity  of  Gutenberg  would  readily  sug- 
gest a  new  and  expeditious  method  of  manufacturing  types ; 
the  practical  skill  of  Fust  as  a  worker  in  metals  (and  the 
working  in  gold  and  silver  had  at  that  time  attained  a  most 
extraordinary  nicety  and  beauty),  and  his  large  pecuniary 
resources,  would  readily  provide  the  necessary  appliances, 
while  the  taste  of  Schoeffer  would  give  all  possible  grace  and 
beauty  to  the  new  forms.  For  Schoeffer,  it  must  be  recol- 
lected, was  a  scribe,  one  of  the  ancient  and  honorable  craft 
whose  occupation  was  destined  to  fall  before  the  new  art ;  a 
transcriber,  perhaps  an  illuminator,  of  the  manuscript  works 
in  use  before  printed  books ;  and  those  who  have  had  the 
happiness  of  viewing  those  exquisite  specimens  of  skill  which 
beguiled  our  ancestors  into  study  and  devotion  (when  will 
modern  typography  produce  such  feasts  for  mind,  and  eye, 
and  imagination  ?)  will  readily  conceive  that  Schoeffer's  eye 
was  already  schooled  for  the  conception,  and  his  hand  for  the 
execution,  of  all  the  beauty  the  trammels  of  a  new  art  and 
limited  skill  would  allow.  Aided  by  his  own  taste  and  his 
partners'  invention  and  wealth,  Schoeffer  proceeded  to  a  new 
enterprise,  namely  the  casting  of  type.  The  entire  concep- 
tion and  execution  of  this  invention  has  been  generally  at- 
tributed and  allowed  to  Schoeffer.  It  seems  most  probable, 
however,  that  where  three  ingenious  men  are  bound  together 
by  art  and  interest,  no  one  of  them  can  lay  exclusive  claim 
to  any  invention  or  undertaking  executed  in  the  workshops 
and  for  the  mutual  benefit  of  all.  Allowing,  therefore,  to 
Schoeffer,  the  honor  of  having  suggested  some  such  plan,  the 


82  Five  Black  Arts. 

other  two  may  fairly  put  in  a  claim  for  their  portion  of  the 
credit  on  the  score  of  their  suggestion  and  assistance  ;  espe- 
cially since  Fust,  as  a  worker  in  metals,  would  have  been 
the  party  to  engage  workmen  to  elaborate  the  conceptions  of 
his  partners'  brains.    Accordingly  the  only  evidence  upon  the 
subject  appears  to  show  that  the  partners  had  for  some  time 
practiced  a  method  of  taking  casts  of  types  in  moulds  of 
plaster ;  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  types  of  Guten- 
berg's earlier  efforts,  both  at  Strasburg  and  at  Mentz,  were 
cut  out  of  single  pieces  of  wood  or  metal  with  infinite  labor 
and  imperfection.     This  method  of  casting,  however,  although 
a  great  improvement,  was  at  best  but  a  slow  and  tedious  pro- 
cess.    Almost  every  type  cast  would  require  a  new  mould  ; 
no  skill  or   care   could  enable  the  workman  to  impress  so 
small  a  thing  as  a  type  is  at  the  face,  yet  so  elongated  in  the 
shank,  fully,  freely,  and  steadily,  into  a  soft  material ;  and 
it  would  be  necessary  afterward,   under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances,  that  the  squareness  and  sharpness  so  indispens- 
able in  type  should  be  given  by  another  slow  process ;  so 
that  at  best  this  advance  was  but  an  imperfect  and  tedious 
operation.     Schoeffer  has  therefore  an  undoubted  claim  to  be 
considered  as  one  of  the  three  inventors  of  printing  ;  for  he 
it  was  who  first  suggested  the  cutting  of  punches,  whereby 
not  only  might  the  most  beautiful  form  of  type  the  taste  and 
skill  of  the  artist  could  suggest  be  fairly  stamped  upon  the 
matrix,  but  a  degree  of  sharpness  and  finish  quite  unattaina- 
ble in  type  cut  in  metal  or  wood  could  be  given  to  the  face ; 
whilst  to  the  shank,  by  the  very  same  process  by  which  the 
face  was  cast,  the  mould  would  give  perfect  sharpness  and 
precision  of  angle.     Add  to  this,  that  the  punch  being  once 
approved  of,  could  be  kept  ready  to  stamp  a  new  matrix  in 
precisely  the  same  condition  and  form  as  the  first,  should  that 
be  worn  out  or  mislaid,  or  make  a  duplicate  should  the  de- 
mands of  business   require  it.     It  is   nevertheless  rather 
singular,  that  the  mould  represented  on  the  right  side  of  the 
press  of  Ascensius,  shortly  after  the  time  of  Schoeffer,  should 
be  precisely  the  same  in  form  and  manner  of  use  as  that  of 
the   present  day.     This  was  evidently  an  immense  stride 
toward  perfection ;  let  Schoeffer  therefore  take  a  place  on 
the  right  hand  of  the  inventor. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  several  shares  of  the  mas- 


Printing — History.  33 

ters  in  perfecting  their  art,  their  joint  labors  were  effectual. 
The  first  productions  of  their  press — passing  over  an  Alpha- 
bet, the  Doctrinale  of  Alexander  Gallus,  and  a  Donatus, 
which  are  of  doubtful  authenticity,  and  are  merely  block- 
books — were  three  editions  of  Donatus,  the  first  hooks  known 
to  have  been  printed  entirely  with  movable  types.  In  1455 
they  printed  the  celebrated  Litterce  Indulgentice  Nicolai  V, 
Pont.  Max.,  which  is  the  first  work — it  is  only  a  single  page 
— printed  with  movable  types  which  is  dated.  In  1455,  or 
thereabouts,  for  it  has  no  date,  they  printed  the  famous  Bib- 
lia  Latina  Vulgata,  generally  known  as  "the  Mazarine 
Bible."  It  has  no  colophon  or  Explicit.  And  it  should  be 
noted,  that  there  is  no  book  known  which  bears  the  conjoint 
names  of  Gutenberg,  Fust,  and  Schoeffer,  nor  any  which  has 
the  imprint  of  Gutenberg  alone. 

Within  eighteen  months  of  their  separation  from  Guten- 
berg, Fust  and  Schoeffer  produced  the  celebrated  Psalter. 
This  was  printed  with  large  cut  type.  As  it  is  impossible 
that  a  new  font  could  have  been  prepared,  and  so  splendid 
a  work  printed  within  that  short  space,  it  must  be  evident 
that  the  partners  did  great  injustice  to  Gutenberg  in  sup- 
pressing his  name  from  the  colophon.  This  book  was  pro- 
duced in  the  month  of  August,  1457,  and  is  the  first  book 
which  bears  the  name  of  the  place  where  it  was  printed, 
those  of  the  printers,  and  the  date  of  the  year  in  which  it 
was  printed.  This  Psalter  was  reprinted  in  1459, 1490,  and 
1502,  and  always  in  the  same  type,  which,  it  is  remarkable, 
was  never  used  for  any  other  work,  probably  because  its 
great  size  made  it  unfit  for  any  other  works  than  those  not 
intended  for  popular  reading,  but  to  lay  on  desks  like  our 
church  Bibles.  On  the  16th  of  October,  1459,  Fust  and 
Schoeffer  published  the  Durandi  Rationale  Divinorum  Offi- 
ciorum,  with  an  entirely  new  font  of  type;  in  1460  the 
Constitutiones  Clementis  V.;  and  in  1462  the  celebrated 
Latin  Bible.  In  1465  they  printed  Cicero  de  Officiis,  in 
which  occur  the  first  printed  Greek  types.  Fust  enjoyed  this 
successful  and  glorious  practice  of  his  art  but  ten  short  years ; 
yet  in  this  period  what  an  immense  advance  from  the  mis- 
shapen and  irregular  lumps  of  their  first  efforts,  ugly  in  them- 
selves, and  more  ugly  in  their  utter  want  of  relative  propor- 
tion and  alignment,  to  the  well-proportioned,  evenly-stand- 
3 


34  Five  Black  Arts. 

ing  type  of  the  Bible !  The  plague  carried  him  off  in  Paris 
about  the  year  1466,  full  of  years,  and  perchance  full  of 
honors.  Schoeffer  survived  many  years,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  Conrad  Henlif,  produced  a  great  number  of  works. 
His  name  is  found  in  the  colophon  of  the  fourth  edition  of 
the  Bible  of  1402,  about  which  time  he  is  supposed  to  have 
deceased.  There  are  ten  books  which  are  known  to  have 
been  printed  by  Fust  and  Schoeffer  conjointly.  Schoeffer 
continued  to  print  during  a  period  of  thirty-five  or  thirty-six 
years  after  the  death  of  Fust,  and  his  productions  are  very 
numerous. 

Were  we  to  take  tradition  for  our  guide  as  regards  the 
character  of  Fust,  we  should  regard  him  as  a  conjuror  and 
an  adept  in  the  black  art.  The  popular  story  (and  many 
"  grave  and  discreet  old  men  "  have  given  credit  to  the  tale) 
runs,  that  having  kept  these  proceedings  profoundly  secret, 
as  soon  as  their  Bible  was  finished.  Fust  transferred  himself 
to  Paris  with  many  copies  of  the  new  work,  and  palmed 
them  upon  the  learned  as  manuscripts — to  which,  as  they 
were  printed  on  vellum,  in  a  type  bearing  much  resemblance 
to  the  written  books  of  the  period,  and  the  vignettes  and 
initial  letters  were  splendidly  illuminated,  they  were  not  very 
dissimilar ;  that  some  eager  scholar  or  devotee  became  the 
possessor  of  the  first  copy,  supposing  it  to  be  a  rare  chance, 
at  the  moderate  price  of  four  or  five  hundred  crowns  ;  that 
as  he  brought  the  work  into  the  market,  the  price  fell  rapidly 
to  sixty,  and  then  to  thirty  crowns,  by  which  time  the  extra- 
ordinary glut  produced  suspicion,  and  Fust  was  accused  of 
multiplying  Holy  Writ  by  the  aid  of  the  Devil,  and  was  ac- 
cordingly persecuted  by  the  priesthood,  whilst  the  laity,  look- 
ing to  their  temporal  interests,  prosecuted  him  for  his  inroad 
into  their  pockets  ;  and  that  from  these  things  Fust  was 
obliged  to  quit  Paris  precipitately. 

Having  thus  given  a  sketch  of  the  origin  and  history  of 
the  art  of  printing,  a  brief  account  of  the  works  issued  by 
the  illustrious  triumvirate  will  not  only  be  proper  here,  but 
will  give  the  general  reader  a  better  idea  of  the  astonishing 
perfection  to  which  the  art  rose  under  the  taste  and  genius 
of  its  inventors.  As  before  remarked,  there  is  not  a  single 
work  of  Gutenburg  which  bears  his  name ;  yet  there  are 
several  which  bear  such  internal  evidences  that  the  literati 


Printing — History.  35 

of  all  parties  and  opinions  are  unanimous  in  attributing  them 
to  his  press. 

Of  these  works,  Dr.  Dibdin,  the  well-known  bibliographer, 
gives  the  following  account : 

"  First,  as  to  the  character  of  the  type  used  by  the  early 
Mentz  printers.     This  appears  to  have  been  uniformly  what 
is  called  Gothic;  and  if  we  except  the  varieties  of  the  larger 
type  (from  three-eighths  to  two-eighths  or  to  a  quarter  of  an 
inch),  which  appear  in  the  Psalters  of  1457, 1459,  and  1490 
(the  type  common  to  the  most  works  executed  about  the  same 
period),  we  shall  observe  three  distinct  sets  or  forms  of  let- 
ters used  in  the  printing-office  of  Faust  and  Schoiflfher.     Of 
these  three  typographical  characters,  two  only  (if  we  except 
the  one  with  which  the  Bible  of  1455  was  executed)  are 
visible  in  the  publications  which  appear  to  have  been  printed 
in  the  lifetime  of  Faust ;  that  is  to  say,  the  larger  Gothic 
used  in  the  Bible  of  1462,  and  the  smaller  Gothic  in  the 
Offices  of  Cicero,  of  the  dates  of  1465  and  1466.     These 
appeared  united,  the  former,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  Consti- 
tutions of  Pope  Clement  V.,  of  the  date  of  1460.     Schoiff- 
her  introduced  a  type  of  an  intermediate  size,  which  may 
be  seen,  among  other  works,  in  the  Rudiments  of  Grammar 
of  1468,  and  in  the  Decretals  of  Pope  Gregory  the  Ninths 
of  the  date  of  1479.     This  intermediate  type  is  of  a  nar- 
rower form,  and  prints  very  closely.     Of  the  three  types 
here  mentioned,  the  largest  is  undoubtedly  of  the  handsomest 
dimensions;  but  they  all  partake  of  the  Secretary  Gothic, 
and  may  be  said  to  be  the  model  of  that  peculiar  character 
which  was  adopted  by  the  early  Leipsic  printers,  Thanner 
and  Boettiger,  and  was  more  especially  used  by  John  Schoiflf- 
her and  the  other  German  printers  for  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  sixteenth  century.     Shew  me,  Lisardo,  one  book,  nay, 
one  leaf  only,  printed  in  the  Roman  type,  in  the  colophon 
of  which  the  name  of  Faust  or  of  Peter  Schoiffher  appears, 
and  you  shall  immediately  have  the  amount  of  the  balance 
in  my  favor,  at  my  banker's,  be  it  great  or  small,  be  it  200?. 
or  20?.,  for  such  a  precious  and  unheard-of  curiosity. 

"  We  shall  now,  in  the  second  place,  say  a  few  words  as 
to  the  character  of  the  printing,  or  of  the  mechanical  skill, 
of  the  early  Mentz  press.  There  can  be  but  one  opinion 
upon  this  point.     Every  thing  is  perfect  of  the  kind,  the  pa- 


36  Five  Black  Arts. 

per,  the  ink,  and  the  register,  or  regularity  of  setting  up  the 
page.  The  Bible  of  the  supposed  date  of  1455  is  quite  a 
miracle  in  this  way  ;*  but  the  Psalters  are  not  less  miracu- 
lous, nor  is  less  praise  due  to  the  Constitutions  of  Pope 
Clement  F.,  of  the  date  of  1460,  and  the  Bible  of  1462  ; 
while  the  Durandus,  of  the  earlier  date  of  1459,  exhibiting 
the  first  specimen  of  the  smallest  letter,  strikes  one  as  among 
the  most  marvelous  monuments  extant  of  the  perfection  of 
early  typography.  Almost  all  the  known  works  before  the 
year  1462  are  printed  upon  vellum^  doubtless  because  they 
ventured  upon  limited  impressions  ;  and  even  of  the  Bible  of 
1462  more  copies  have  been  described  upon  vellum  than  upon 
paper.  Upon  the  whole,  the  vellum  used  by  Faust  and 
Schoiffher,  although  inferior  to  the  Venetian,  is  exceedingly 
good,  being  generally  both  white  and  substantial. 

"  In  the  third  place,  let  us  notice  the  nature  or  character 
of  the  works  which  have  issued  from  the  press  of  Faust  and 
Schoiffher.  Whatever  may  be  our  ^partiality  toward  that 
estabhshment  from  which  the  public  were  first  gratified  with 
the  sight  of  a  printed  book,  candor  obliges  us  to  confess 
that  the  fathers  of  printing  were  not  fortunate,  upon  the 
whole,  in  the  choice  of  books  which  issued  from  their  press. 

"  In  the  fourth  place  (for  I  told  you  I  should  be  somewhat, 
tautologous),  consider  what  is  the  typographical  appearance 
of  these  books  which  Gutenberg  is  really  supposed  to  have 
executed.  It  is  quite  unique.  A  little  barbarous,  and  cer- 
tainly wholly  dissimilar  from  any  thing  we  observe  in  other 
cotemporaneous  productions  of  the  Mentz  press.  You  will 
please  to  understand  that  I  think  very  doubtfully  of  the  Dona- 
tuses,  which  are  considered  to  have  been  printed  by  him ; 
as  well  as  of  the  Speculum  Sacerdotum,  and  Celehratio  Mis- 
sarum;  concluding  the  Catholicon  of  1460,  and  the  Vocal- 
ularies  of  1467  and  1469,  to  be  the  more  genuine  produc- 

*  This  is  even  sober  praise.  The  mechanism  of  the  press-work,  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  ink,  beautiful,  regular,  and  glossy  as  the  whole  appears, 
does  not  strike  one  with  more  astonishment  than  the  manufacture  of  the 
paper.  "  Charta,"  says  Tangendres,  "  ejusdem  est  crassitudinis,  qualem 
illo  tempore  libris  imprimendis  consumere  mos  fuit."  And  again,  "  Charta 
ob  ejus  densitatem  atque  spissitudinem  baud  ingratam  ubique  se  maxime 
commendat."  {Disq.  de  Not.  Characi.  Libror.  p.  27,  p.  46.)  And  see  Meer- 
man's  testimony  in  favor  of  the  paper  of  the  Soubiaco  press,  Orig.  Typog. 
vol.  i.  p.  9,  note. 


Printing — History.  37 

tions  of  his  press,  or  of  the  types  used  by  him.  Is  it  not 
surprising,  I  ask,  that  these  works  are  executed  in  types 
quite  different  from  any  thing  in  the  Mentz  productions  ?  and 
this  from  a  man  who  is  considered  as  the  parent  of  printing 
in  that  city.  No  wonder,  if  they  he  the  actual  productions 
of  Gutenberg,  that  Faust  and  Schoiffher  thought  so  meanly 
of  his  talents,  and  that  on  a  dissolution  of  partnership  they 
adopted  a  different  and  a  very  superior  character." 

In  confirmation  of  these  remarks  of  the  learned  bibliog- 
rapher, we  shall  here  insert  a  specimen  of  Gutenberg's 
Balbus  de  Janiia,  which  will  also  be  a  curious  illustration  of 
ancient  art.  Notwithstanding  the  appearance  of  these  types, 
the  reader  is  assured  that  the  original  is  really  printed  from 
separate  pieces  of  metal.* 

'rcvitwrercgutaYirme^uIacouoci^  fcZin 
/igniftratiuapiottwdacoTie  ptidJ)al»tct^AZ> 

wcnioe  ttiobulacoms  ct  mcUltv.qu^  atcmtunoti 

Dr.  Home,  in  the  appendix  to  his  Introduction  to  Bihliog- 
raphy,  says  of  the  Psalter,  "  This  precious  work,  as  San- 
tander  justly  calls  it,  is  one  of  the  most  known  among  early 
printed  books,  from  the  various  and  correct  descriptions  of 
it  which  have  been  given  by  different  bibliographers.  Un- 
til the  discovery  of  Pope  Nicholas's  Literce  Indulgentiarum, 
this  was  supposed  to  be  the  very  first  article  ever  printed 
with  a  date  affixed ;  the  book  is  executed  on  vellum,  and  of 
such  extreme  rarity  that  not  more  than  six  or  seven  copies 
are  known  to  be  in  existence ;  all  of  which,  however,  differ 
from  each  other  in  some  respect  or  other.  The  most  perfect 
copy  known  is  that  in  the  imperial  library  at  Vienna ;  it 
comprises  175  leaves,  of  which  the  Psalter  occupies  the  135 
first  and  the  recto  of  the  136th,  The  remainder  is  appro- 
priated to  litany,  prayers,  responses,  vigils,  etc.  The  psalms 
are  executed  in  larger  characters  than  the  hymns,  similar  to 
those  used  for  missals  prior  to  the  invention  of  printing ;  but 

*  The  initial  A  is  illuminated  in  a  very  brilliant  blue.  The  reader  who 
is  desirous  of  obtaining  the  full  effect  of  this  specimen  can  fill  up  the 
printed  outline  in  water-color. 


38  Five  Black  Arts. 

all  are  distinguished  for  their  uncommon  blackness.  The 
capital  letters,  288  in  number,  are  cut  on  wood  with  a  de- 
gree of  delicacy  and  boldness  which  are  truly  surprising  ;  the 
largest  of  these,  the  initial  letters  of  the  psalms,  which  are 
black,  red,  and  blue,  must  (as  Lichtenberger  has  remarked) 
have  passed  three  times  through  the  press.  Copies  are  now 
in  the  Queen's  library  at  Windsor,  and  in  that  of  Earl  Spen- 
cer at  Spencer  House." 

The  extraordinaay  praise  awarded  by  these  eminent  bib- 
liomaniacs to  the  first  productions  of  the  Mentz  press  may 
perchance  excite  in  the  minds  of  the  more  sober  public  a 
suspicion  that  these  writers  have  been  led  away  by  their  en- 
thusiasm beyond  the  limits  of  matter-of-fact  truth,  and  have 
seen  merit  in  defects,  beauty  in  deformity,  and  luster  in  an- 
tiquity. Assuredly,  nevertheless,  such  is  by  no  means  the 
case ;  and  the  happy  individual  who  gains  access  to  the  chef- 
d^oeuvres  of  Fust  and  Schoeffer  will  return  from  the  inspec- 
tion a  wiser  man  ;  for  the  beauty  of  these  works  is  inconceiv- 
able. England  fortunately  possesses  several  of  these  treas- 
ures of  art,  there  being  copies  of  the  Bible  of  the  supposed 
date  of  1450-55  in  the  Boyal  Library,  in  the  Bodleian,  and 
in  those  of  Earl  Spencer  and  Henry  Perkins,  Esq. ;  whilst 
of  the  six  known  copies  of  the  Psalter  of  1457,  two  are  in 
England,  namely,  one  at  Windsor,  and  one  in  the  possession 
of  Lord  Spencer.  Of  the  Latin  Bible  of  Fust  and  Schoeffer, 
1462  (the  first  bearing  date),  there  are  copies  on  vellum  at 
Blenheim,  in  the  libraries  of  Lord  Spencer,  the  Earl  of  Jer- 
sey, one  formerly  belonging  to  Sir  M.  Sykes,  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  in  the  Bodleian  (imperfect).  Copies  on  paper 
are  rarer  still,  there  being  but  three  in  England,  viz.,  those 
in  the  Royal  Library  and  the  British  Museum,  and  one  lately 
in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Willett. 

Apparently,  in  retaUation  for  the  injustice  done  to  Gut- 
enberg by  his  partners  in  depriving  him  of  any  share  of 
the  honor  of  producing  the  Psalter  of  1457,  which,  as  before 
stated,  must  be  the  joint  production  of  all  three,  although  it 
was  not  finished  until  after  the  secession  of  Gutenberg,  bib- 
liographers have  generally  agreed  in  attributing  the  printing 
of  the  Bible  of  1450-55  to  Gutenberg  alone,  when  it  is 
equally  manifest  that  Fust  and  Schoeffer  had  as  much  claim 
to  the  honor  as  their  coadjutor.     It  is  an  exceedingly  beau- 


Printing — History.  39 

tiful  book,  in  two  very  large  folio  volumes,  in  two  columns, 
containing  from  forty-one  to  forty-three  lines  each,  in  very 
large  well-cut  types.  It  consists  of  six  hundred  and  forty- 
one  leaves  ;  it  has  no  title,  paging,  signatures,  or  catch- 
words ;  the  initial  letters  are  not  printed,  but  painted  in 
by  illuminators,  and  the  initial  letters  of  each  verse  of  the 
psalms  are  painted  alternately  red  and  black,  by  way  of 
guide  to  the  priests  in  their  alternate  reading.  From  the 
luster  and  blackness  of  the  ink,  its  evenness  of  color,  and 
beautiful  execution,  it  is  a  very  superb  book ;  but  it  is  nev- 
ertheless surpassed  by  the  Fust  and  Schoeffer  edition  of  1462, 
.  when  they  had  attained  greater  experience  in  the  practice  of 
the  art.  By  far  the  choicest,  however,  of  these  editiones 
principes,  is  the  Mentz  Psalter  or  Codex  Fsalmorum  before 
mentioned.  Dr.  Home  sa3^s  that  the  six  known  copies  of  this 
edition  diifer  from  each  other  in  some  respects,  and  proceeds 
to  give  some  particulars  in  which  variations  are  found  ;  but 
by  collating  the  copies  in  the  Royal  Library,  that  at  Windsor, 
and  that  at  the  British  Museum,  it  will  be  found  that,  al- 
though bearing  the  same  date,  they  are  in  fact  three  distinct 
editions.  It  would  have  excited  no  surprise  had  it  been 
found  that  the  printed  ornaments  differed,  as  nothing  would 
be  more  easy  than  to  change  the  colors  with  which  the  differ- 
ent blocks  were  worked ;  and  in  fact  in  the  Museum  copy 
the  initial  B  is  printed  in  a  bright  blue,  and  the  scroll-work 
is  red ;  but  the  text  varies  in  such  a  manner  that  there  can 
be  no  doubt  of  their  perfect  distinctness. 

It  must  also  be  noted  that  in  the  Windsor  copy  each  line 
is  ''justified  out,"  which  is  not  the  case  in  Earl  Spencer's 
copy ;  and  that  in  the  Museum  copy  the  page  commences 
with  rubrical  matter,  which  is  continued  down  the  two  first 
lines  of  text,  which  are  shortened.  The  difference  is  effect- 
ed by  variations  in  the  contractions  of  many  of  the  words. 
The  book  *  is  a  very  large  folio,  on  vellum,  consisting  of 
about  a  hundred  and  thirty  leaves,  printed  on  both  sides. 
There  are  generally  twenty-three  lines  in  a  page,  in  Gothic 
type.  Every  psalm  begins  with  a  splendid  initial  letter, 
printed  in  two  colors  in  almost  every  case.     Occasionally, 

*  The  copy  described  is  that  at  Windsor  ;  the  illuminations,  no  doubt 
vary  in  every  copy. 


40  Five  Black  Arts. 

however,  this  appears  to  have  been  neglected,  and  then  the 
letter  is  painted  in  by  the  illuminator,  but  not  in  imitation  of 
the  printed  letters.  The  initials  consist  of  a  bold  character, 
of  Gothic  cut,  surrounded  by  a  scroll,  which  is  sometimes  of 
great  length,  but  that  of  the  B  extending  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom  of  the  page.  The  same  wooden  block  is  used  as  often 
as  the  letter  occurs,  but  it  is  not  always  in  the  same  colors. 
Moreover,  every  verse  commences  with  a  smaller  initial 
printed  in  a  red  color.  Nor  is  this  work  destitute  of  the 
embellishments  of  the  illuminator ;  for  at  the  commencement 
of  every  psalm  is  a  rubric,  painted  in  a  most  brilliant  red, 
in  a  smaller  letter,  of  precisely  the  same  character  as  the 
text,  and  also  the  music  of  the  chant,  with  the  words  under- 
neath it  painted  in  black.  The  initial  letters  of  both  are 
spendidly  illuminated  in  various  colors.  The  paint  is  used 
in  such  profusion  that  the  letters  are  absolutely  in  relief, 
often  to  the  extent  of  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch ;  and  besides 
these,  the  letter  following  the  grand  initial  has  a  broad  bar 
painted  down  it,  and  very  frequently  the  first  letter  after 
the  pauses  indicated  in  our  authorized  version  by  a  colon  is 
illuminated  in  a  similar  manner.  One  page  is  particularly 
splendid  ;  it  consists  of  short  verses,  in  which  the  first  words 
are  constantly  repeated.  It  commences  with  a  grand  initial, 
and  there  are  twenty-two  smaller  initials  to  the  verses ;  the 
second  letter  of  the  first  verse,  and  the  first  letter  after  every 
pause  (twenty-three  in  number),  having  the  broad  illumin- 
ated bar.  Wherever  the  psalm  commences  too  near  the  bot- 
tom to  allow  of  the  full  exuberance  of  the  scroll,  a  piece  of 
paper  appears  to  have  been  laid  over  a  portion  of  the  cut, 
to  prevent  the  impression  from  appearing ;  and  in  one  psalm 
where  the  chant  is  of  unusual  length,  the  lower  part  of  the 
initial  0,  and  a  corresponding  portion  of  the  scroll,  are  thus 
suppressed ;  the  music  being  illuminated  in  its  place,  and 
the  scroll  continued  below  it.  Sometimes  the  illuminator 
has  omitted  to  add  his  initial  letter ;  and  in  this  copy  the 
double  device  is  omitted.  The  accuracy  with  which  the 
colored  blocks  are  printed  within  the  text  and  within  each 
other  is  perfectly  astonishing.  From  this  description  it  may 
be  conceived  how  very  superb  is  the  first  book  ever  printed, 
the  date,  and  place,  and  artist,  of  which  can  be  accurately 
ascertained.     Dr.  Dibdin  in   the  Bihliotheca  Spenceriana, 


Printing — History.  41 

Mr.  Savage  in  his  work  on  Decorative  Printing^  Dr.  Home, 
whose  wood-block  is  not  colored,  and  several  other  writers, 
have  given  fac-similes  of  the  same  copy  (Lord  Spencer's), 
which,  however,  all  differ  from  one  another. 

The  capture  of  the  city  of  Mentz  by  Count  Adolphus  of 
Nassau  in  the  year  1462,  had  the  effect  of  interrupting  the 
labors  of  Fust  and  Schoeffer ;  and  moreover  the  distracted 
state  of  the  city  enabled,  perhaps  compelled,  the  workmen 
initiated  in  the  mysteries  of  the  art  to  flee  into  the  neighbor- 
ing states,  and  thus  spread  its  practice  over  the  whole  civil- 
ized globe.  Such,  indeed,  was  the  fame  it  had  already 
acquired,  and  such  the  idea  entertained  of  its  importance, 
that  every  community  with  the  slightest  pretensions  to  liter- 
ature appears  to  have  sought  a  knowledge  of  it  with  the  great- 
est avidity.  Thus,  within  six  years  of  the  publication  of  the 
Psalter,  it  had  spread  to  several  cities  having  some  connec- 
tion with  Mentz,  and  within  fifteen  years  to  almost  every 
town  of  consideration  in  Christian  Europe.  A  chronological 
list  of  the  cities  which  first  seized  upon  the  invention  would 
be  greatly  too  long  for  this  article ;  it  may  be  interesting, 
however,  to  extract  a  few  of  the  principal,  with  a  notice  of 
such  printers  as  are  remarkable  either  for  the  beauty  or  the 
scarcity  of  their  works.  The  reader  is  not  to  suppose  that 
all,  or  indeed  any  great  number  of  these,  learned  the  prac- 
tice of  the  art  under  the  tuition  of  the  first  masters.  A  few 
are  known  to  have  been  pupils  of  the  inventors,  and  it  is 
probable  that  many  others  of  them  were  so ;  but  the  majority, 
in  all  likelihood,  were  men  of  learning,  enterprise,  or  capital, 
who  derived  their  typographical  knowledge  from  such  facts 
as  had  transpired,  or  from  inferior  workmen  of  Fust  and 
Schoeffer  oi;  Gutenberg  supplying  deficiencies  by  their  own 
ingenuity. 

Strasburg.  Mentelin.  Some  writers  have  claimed  fox 
Mentelin  the  invention  of  printing,  representing  that  Guten- 
berg was  his  servant,  without,  however,  showing  the  slightest 
ground  for  their  assertions  ;  but  others,  more  reasonable,  say 
that  he  was  acquainted  with  Gutenberg,  and  instructed  by 
him,  and  that  on  the  latter's  quitting  Strasburg  he  estab- 
lished a  printing-oflSce,  and  carried  on  the  business  success- 
fully. Mentelin  most  probably  printed  about  the  year  1458. 
His  type  is  rude  and  inelegant.     The  only  book  bearing  his 


42  Five  Black  Arts. 

name  is  Beauvais's  Speculum  ffistoriale,  of  date  1473. 
Schsepflin  sajs,  that  he,  as  well  as  Fust  and  Schoeffer  at 
Mentz,  printed  300  sheets  per  day. 

In  1461.  Bamberg.  Albert  Pfiister.  He  printed  a  col- 
lection of  Fables,  of  date  1461.  This  book  is  excessively 
rare  ;  it  is  printed  with  cast  metal  type,  and  is  illustrated 
with  101  wood-cuts,  in  much  the  same  style  as  the  old  Biblia 
Pauperum.  All  his  other  works  are  printed  in  the  same 
type. 

1465.  Subiaco  and  Rome.  Schweynheym  and  Pannartz. 
Their  known  works  are,  a  JDonatus,  without  date  ;  Lactan- 
tius,  1465  ;  St.  Augustin  on  the  City  of  God,  1467  ;  Cicero 
de  Oratore,  without  date  ;  and  the  Commentary  of  Be  Lyra 
on.  the  Bible,  1471,  all  in  folio.  These  works  were  printed 
in  a  new  letter,  very  closely  resembling  the  type  now  in  use 
called  Roman,  and  of  which  they  were  the  introducers. 
In  Be  Lyra  are  the  earliest  specimens  of  Greek  types  worthy 
of  the  name  ;  some  few  letters  appear  in  the  Cicero  de  Offieiis 
printed  at  Mentz,  but  so  wretchedly  imperfect  that  they  are 
unworthy  of  mention.  It  is  curious  that  the  Greek  font  of 
Schweynheym  and  Pannartz  at  Subiaco  was  evidently  very 
small ;  but  upon  their  removal  to  Rome  they  cast  a  much  larger 
font.  The  cut  and  appearance  of  this  Greek  is  more  than 
respectable.  There  is  a  very  curious  petition  from  them  to 
the  pope,  praying  for  assistance  on  the  ground  that  they  had 
entirely  ruined  themselves  by  printing  Be  Lyra,  for  which 
there  was  no  sale,  and  representing  that  they  had  on  their 
hands  no  less  than  eleven  hundred  folio  volumes  of  that 
work.  Subiaco  is  the  first  place  in  Italy  in  which  printing 
was  practiced.  At  Rome  Ulric  Han  and  Lignamine  were 
cotemporaries.  Their  works,  particularly  those  of  Han,  are 
excessively  rare. 

1467.  Elfield.  Henry  and  Nicholas  Bechtermunze.  They 
purchased  from  Conrad  Humery  the  types  and  materials 
of  Gutenberg.  Their  w^orks  are  not  at  all  remarkable  for 
beauty,  but  are  very  rare,  and  much  sought  for  as  affording 
evidence  of  Gutenberg's  works. 

1407.  Cologne.  Ulric  Zell.  His  type  is  Gothic,  and 
of  no  beauty  ;  but  his  works  are  rare. 

1468.  Augsburg.  Ginther  Zainer  printed  the  first  book 
in  Germany  with  Roman  type. 


Printing — History.  43 

1469.  Venice.  John  de  Spira,  whose  works  are  of  the 
utmost  beauty.  His  edition  of  Pliny  is  splendid,  and  enor- 
mous sums  have  been  given  for  those  printed  in  vellum.  He 
did  not  use  Greek  characters ;  but  Greek  passages  are  com- 
posed in  Roman  types.  In  the  same  city,  at  the  same  time, 
printed  Nicholas  Jenson,  whose  works  are  equal,  if  not  su- 
perior, to  those  of  Spira ;  they  are  not  so  rare,  but  are  almost 
equally  sought  after.  A  copy  of  his  folio  Latin  Bible  of 
1479,  printed  in  Gothic  type,  was  sold  at  Mr.  Edwards's  sale 
for  11 5Z.  10s.  Venice  was  also  the  residence  of  Christopher 
Valdarfar,  whose  works  gave  rise  to  a  most  extraordinary 
event  connected  with  bibliography,  viz.,  the  sale  of  the  first 
edition  of  II  Decamerone  di  Boccaccio,  printed  by  him  in 
1471.  For  many  years  it  had  been  known  that  a  single 
copy  of  this  work  was  in  existence,  and  the  most  devoted 
bibliomaniacs  had  used  their  utmost  endeavors  to  discover  it, 
but  in  vain.  At  length,  about  1470,  an  ancestor  of  the 
Duke'  of  Roxburgho  obtained  possession  of  it  for  the  sum  of 
one  hundred  guineas.  In  lapse  of  time  it  became  the  prop- 
erty of  John  duke  of  Roxburghe,  the  accomplished,  indefat- 
igable, and  undaunted  bibliomaniac,  after  whose  death  his 
gorgeous  library  was  dispersed  by  the  auctioneer  in  the  year 
1811.  The  interest  excited  amongst  the  learned  by  this  sale 
was  intense.  It  was  known  that  the  collection  contained  the 
most  superb  specimens  of  every  kind  of  ancient  lore ;  that 
the  illuminated  manuscripts  were  the  most  brilliant,  the  bal- 
lads the  most  obscure,  the  editiones  principes  the  most  com- 
plete that  the  world  could  produce ;  that  the  rarest  Caxtons, 
the  finest  Pynsons,  and  grandest  specimens  of  the  foreign 
printers,  were  here  to  be  found ;  above  all,  it  was  rumored 
that  a  m.ysterious  edition  of  Boccaccio's  Decameron  would 
become  a  bone  of  contention  amongst  the  noblest  of  the 
literati.  The  public,  learned  and  unlearned,  were  infected 
with  the  mania,  and  the  daily  papers  teemed  with  notices  of 
the  sale.  At  length  the  important  day  arrived,  the  17th  of 
June,  1811.  St.  James's  Square  was  the  place.  Mr.  Evans 
presided.  The  room  was  crowded ;  Earl  Spencer,  the  Mar- 
quis of  Blandford,  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  and  an  agent  of 
Napoleon,  were  amongst  the  most  prominent.  The  book  was 
a  small  folio,  in  faded  yellow  morocco  binding,  black-letter. 
''  Silence  followed  his  (Mr.  Evans's)  address,"  says  Dibdin. 


44  Five  Black  Arts. 

"  On  his  right  hand,  standing  against  the  wall,  stood  Earl 
Spencer;  a  little  lower  down,  and  standing  at  right  angles 
with  his  lordship,  appeared  the  Marquis  of  Blandford.  The 
duke,  I  believe,  was  not  then  present ;  but  my  Lord  Althorpe 
stood  a  little  backward,  to  the  right  of  his  father,  Earl  Spen 
cer.  Such  was  '  the  ground  taken  up '  by  the  adverse  hosts. 
The  honor  of  firing  the  first  shot  was  due  to  a  gentleman  of 
Shropshire,  unused  to  this  species  of  warfare,  and  who  sepm- 
ed  to  recoil  from  the  reverberation  of  the  report  himself  had 
made.  '  One  hundred  guineas,'  he  exclaimed.  Again  a 
pause  ensued ;  but  anon  the  biddings  rose  rapidly  to  five 
hundred  guineas.  Hitherto,  however,  it  was  manifest  that 
the  firing  was  but  masked  and  desultory.  At  length  all  ran- 
dom shots  ceased,  and  the  champions  before  named  stood 
gallantly  up  to  each  other,  resolving  not  to  flinch  from  a  trial 
of  their  respective  strengths.  '  A  thousand  guineas '  were 
bid  by  Earl  Spencer;  to  which  the  marquis  added  'ten.' 
You  might  have  heard  a  pin  drop.  All  eyes  were  turned ; 
all  breathing  well  nigh  stopped.  Every  sword  was  put  home 
within  its  scabbard,  and  not  a  piece  of  steel  was  seen  to  move 
or  to  glitter  save  that  which  each  of  these  champions  brand- 
ished in  his  valorous  hand.  See,  see ;  they  parry,  they  lunge, 
they  hit ;  yet  their  strength  is  undiminished,  and  no  thought 
of  yielding  is  entertained  by  either.  '  Two  thousand  pounds ' 
are  offered  by  the  marquis.  Then  it  was  that  Earl  Spencer, 
as  a  prudent  general,  began  to  think  of  an  useless  eff*usion  of 
blood  and  expenditure  of  ammunition,  seeing  that  his  adver- 
sary was  as  resolute  and  fresh  as  at  the  onset.  For  a  quar- 
ter of  a  minute  he  paused,  when  my  Lord  Althorpe  advanced 
one  step  forward,  as  if  to  supply  his  father  with  another  spear 
for  the  purpose  of  renewing  the  contest.  His  countenance 
was  marked  with  a  fixed  determination  to  gain  the  prize,  if 
prudence  in  its  most  commanding  form,  and  with  a  frown  of 
unusual  intensity  of  expression,  had  not  bade  him  desist. 
The  father  and  son  for  a  few  seconds  converse  apart ;  and 
the  biddings  are  resumed.  '  Two  thousand  two  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds,'  said  Lord  Spencer.  The  spectators  are  now  ab- 
solutely electrified.  The  marquis  quietly  adds  his  usual  Hen,' 
and  there  is  an  end  of  the  contest.  Mr.  Evans,  ere  his  ham- 
mer fell,  made  a  due  pause,  and,  indeed,  as  if  by  something 
preternatural,    the   ebony  instrument  seemed  itself  to  be 


Printing — History.  45 

charmed  or  suspended  in  '  in  mid-air.'  However,  at  length 
down  dropped  the  hammer,  and,  as  Lisardo  has  not  merely 
poetically  expressed  himself,  '  the  echo '  of  the  sound  of  that 
fallen  hammer  *was  heard  in  the  libraries  of  Rome,  of  Milan, 
and  Saint  Mark.'  Not  the  least  surprising  incident  of  this 
extraordinary  sale  is,  that  the  marquis  already  possessed  a 
copy  of  the  work,  which  wanted  a  few  leaves  at  the  end ;  he 
therefore  paid  this  enormous  sum  for  the  honor  of  possessing 
a  few  pages.  The  prize  of  this  contest  is  now  in  the  posses- 
gion  of  Earl  Spencer." 

1469.  Milan.  Lavagna.  In  1476  Dionysius  Palava- 
sinus  printed  the  Greek  Grammar  of  Constantino  Lascaris, 
in  quarto,  which  is  the  first  book  printed  entirely  in  Greek. 
The  first  printing  in  Hebrew  characters  was  performed  at 
Soncino,  in  the  duchy  of  Milan,  in  1482. 

1470.  Fans,  Ulricus  Gering,  M.  Crantz,  and  M.  Fri- 
burger.  * 

1471.  Florence,  Bernard  Cennini.  In  1488  Demetrius 
of  Crete  printed  the  first  edition  of  Homer's  works,  in  most 
beautiful  Greek. 

1474.  Basle,     Bernardus  Richel. 

1474.  Valencia,     Alonzo  Fernandes  de  Cordova. 

1474.  •Louvain,    Joannes  de  Westphalia. 

1474.  Westminster,  William  Caxton,  the  Game  of 
Chess. 

1475.  ImhecJc,     Lucas  Brandis. 

1476.  Antiverp.     Thierry  Martins  of  Alost. 

1476.  Pz78en  in  Bohemia.  Statuta  Synondalia  Pragen" 
sia  ;  printer's  name  not  known. 

1476.     Delft,    Maurice  Yemantz. 

1478.     Geneva,    Adam  Steinschawer. 

1478.     Oxford.    Theodericus  Rood. 

1480.  ^St.  Albans,  Laurentii  Guillielmi  de  Saona 
Rhetorica  Nova  ;  printer's  name  not  known. 

1482.  Vienna,    John  Winterburg. 

1483.  Stockholm,    Johannes  Snell. 

1483.  Harlem,  Formulce  JSfovitiorumy  by  Johannes 
Andriesson.  This  is  the  earliest  book  printed  at  Harlem 
with  a  date.  In  giving  this  as  the  first  work  known  to  be 
printed  at  Harlem,  the  claims  of  Koster,  his  grandsons  and 
successors,  must,  of  course,  be  reserved. 


46  Five  Black  Arts. 

1493.     Copenhagen.     Gothofridus  de  Ghemen. 

1500.     Cracow,     Joannes  Haller. 

1500.     Munich.     Joannes  Schobzer. 

1500.     Amsterdam.     D.  Pietersoen. 

1507.  Edinburgh.  A  Latin  Breviary;  no  printer's 
name.  From  a  patent  of  James  lY.  it  appears  that  the  first 
printing-press  was  established  at  Edinburgh  in  1507.  From 
the  style  and  types,  it  is  probable  that  they  were  imported 
from  France. 

1551.  Dublin.  Ireland  was  apparently  the  last  country 
in  Europe  into  which  printing  was  introduced.  The  first 
book  printed  is  a  black-letter  edition  of  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  printed  by  Humphrey  Powell. 

1569.  Mexico.  Antonio  Spinoza,  Vocabulario  en  Len- 
gua  Castellana  y  Mexicana. 

1689.  United  States,  at  the  town  of  Cambridge,  in  the 
State  of  Massachusetts.     Printer,  Stephen  Daye.* 

*  The  first  printing-press  "  worked  "  in  the  American  Colonies  was  "  set 
up  "  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1639.  Rev.  Jesse  Glover  procured 
this  press  by  ''  contributions  of  friends  of  learning  and  religion  "  in  Am- 
sterdam and  in  England,  but  died  on  his  passage  to  the  new  world.  Ste- 
phen Daye  was  the  first  printer.  In  honor  of  his  pioneer  position,  Gov- 
ernment gave  him  a  grant  of  three  hundred  acres  of  land.         • 

Pennsylvania  was  the  second  colony  to  encourage  printing.  William 
Bradford  came  to  Pennsylvania  with  William  Penn,  in  1686,  and  estab- 
lished a  printing-press  in  Philadelphia.  In  1692,  Mr.  Bradford  was  in- 
duced to  establish  a  printing-press  in  New  York.  He  received  40/.  per 
annum  and  the  privilege  of  printing  on  his  own  account.  Previous  to  this 
time,  there  had  been  no  printing  done  in  the  Province  of  New  York.  His 
first  issue  in  New  York  was  a  proclamation  bearing  the  date  of  1692. 

It  was  nearly  a  century  after  a  printing-press  had  been  set  up  in  New 
England  before  one  would  be  tolerated  in  Virginia. 

The  southern  colonists  had  no  printing  done  among  them  till  1727. 

There  was  a  printing-press 

At  New  London  in  Connecticut,  in  -        -        1709. 
'*   Annapolis  in  Maryland,        -        -        .        .     1726. 

"   Williamsburg  in  Virginia,         -  -        .        1729. 
"   Charleston  in  South  Carolina,       -        -        -     1730. 

"  Newport  in  Rhode  Island,        -  -        -        1732. 
"  Woodbridge  in  New  Jersey,        -        -        -    1752. 

"  Newbern  in  North  Carolina,      -  -        .        1755. 
"  Portsmouth  in  New  Hampshire,    -        -        -    1756. 

''  Savannah  in  Georgia,        -        -  .        _        i662. 

The  first  printing-press  established  in  the  North-West  Territory  was 
worked  by  William  Maxwell,  at  Cincinnati,  in  1793.    The  first  printing 


Printing — History.  47 

It  was  the  custom  of  the  early  printers  to  distinguish  their 
books  by  the  most  fantastic  devices ;  and  by  these  their 
works  may  be  readily  recognized.  Many  of  them  were  of 
exceeding  beauty,  and  all  the  skill  and  appliances  of  their 
art  were  employed  to  render  them  striking ;  they  are  really 
an  ornament  to  their  works.  The  invention  of  these  has 
been  ascribed  to  Aldus  ;  but  the  very  first  printers,  Fust  and 
SchoefFer,  used  each  for  himself,  yet  conjoined,  devices  of 
rare  excellence. 

Our  chronological  arrangement  has  prevented  us  from 
mentioning  some  of  the  most  skillful  typographers.  Their 
works,  however,  are  so  numerous,  and  their  eiforts  so  well 
known,  as  to  render  it  unnecessary  to  do  more  than  mention 
their  names.  Such  men  as  the  Aldi,*  Frobenius,  Plantinus, 
Operinus,  the  Stephani,  the  Elzeviri,  the  Gryphii,  the  Giunti, 
the  Moreti,  and  hosts  of  peers,  have  universal  fame.  The 
printing-office  of  Plantinus,  in  the  Place  Vendredi,  at  Ant- 
werp, exists  in  its  full  integrity,  and  in  the  possession  and 
use  of  his  descendants  the  Moreti ;  the  same  presses,  the 
same  types,  with  the  addition  of  every  improvement  modern 
skill  has  effected,  are  still  in  use,  and  an  inspection  of  these 
singular  relics  of  olden  art  will  well  repay  the  investigation 
of  the  curious. 

THE    nUST  PRESSES. 

Of  the  mechanical  means  by  which  these  beautiful  im- 
pressions of  the  old  printers  were  produced  there  is  little  or 
no  record  ;  but  it  is  quite  evident  that  they  must  have  been 
effected  by  some  more  skillful  process  than  mere  manipula- 
tion, that  is,  than  the  appliance  of  a  burnisher,  as  is  evident 

executed  west  of  the  Mississippi  was  done  at  St.  Louis,  in  1808,  by  Jacob 
Hinkle. 

Tliere  had  been  a  printing-press  in  Kentucky  in  1786,  and  there  was  one 
in  Tennessee  in  1793— in  Michigan  in  1809 — in  Mississippi  in  1810.  Lou- 
isiana had  a  press  immediately  after  her  possession  by  the  United  States. 

Printing  was  done  in  Canada  before  the  separation  of  the  American  Col- 
onies from  the  Mother  Country.  Halifax  had  a  press  in  1751,  and  Quebec 
boasted  of  a  printing-office  in  1764. — Sketch  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of 
Printing,  hy  William  T.  Coggeshall — Newspaper  Record.  Lay  Sf  Brother, 
Philadelphia,  1857. 

*  It  should  be  mentioned  that  Aldus  Mann  tins  invented  the  beautiful 
character  of  type  called  Italic  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
first  book  printed  with  it  is  a  Virgil,  1501. 


48  Five  Black  Arts. 

in  the  first  wood-cuts,  or  of  a  roller,  or  superficial  pressure 
applied  immediately  by  hand.  It  is  very  probable  that  one 
of  the  difficulties  which  Gutenberg  found  insuperable  at 
Strasburg,  was  the  construction  of  a  machine  of  sufficient 
power  to  take  impressions  of  the  types  or  blocks  then  em- 
ployed ;  nor  is  it  at  all  wonderful  that  the  many  years  he  re- 
sided at  that  city  were  insufficient  to  produce  the  requisite 
means ;  for,  with  cutting  type,  forming  his  screws^  inventing 
and  making  ink,  and  the  means  of  applying  his  ink  when 
made,  his  time  must  have  been  amply  occupied.  Moreover, 
the  construction  of  a  press  would  require  a  versatile  genius, 
and  excellent  mechanical  skill,  not  to  be  looked  for  in  one 
man.  But  upon  his  junction  with  Fust  and  Schoeffer,  the 
gold  of  the  former,  and  the  invention  of  all  the  three,  would 
soon  supply  the  defect;  and,  for  aught  that  appears  to  the 
contrary,  the  press  used  in  their  office  differed  in  no  essential 
point  from  those  in  use  until  the  improvements  of  Blaew  in 
1600-20.  Fortunately,  amongst  the  singular  devices  with 
which  it  pleased  the  earlier  printers  to  distinguish  their 
works,  Badius  Ascensius  of  Lyons  (1496-1535)  chose  the 
press ;  and  there  are  cuts  of  various  sizes  on  the  title-pages 
of  his  works.  It  appears  from  these,  that,  like  that  of  Gut- 
enberg, they  could  print  only  four  pages  at  a  time,  and  that 
at  two  pulls ;  the  table  and  tympan  ran  in,  and  the  platen 
was  brought  down  by  a  powerful  screw,  by  means  of  a  lever 
inserted  into  the  spindle. 

The  color  which  the  earliest  typographers  used  was  prob- 
ably made  according  to  the  style  of  work  in  hand.  The 
earliest  copies  of  the  Speculum  and  Bihlia  Pauperum  were 
printed  in  a  brown  color,  of  which  raw  umber  is  the  principal 
ingredient.  It  appears  to  have  been  well  ground  and  thin. 
It  was,  most  likely,  of  the  same  tint  as  the  old  drawings  of 
the  same  subjects,  and  would  be  better  adapted  for  the  filling 
up  in  various  colors,  as  appears  to  have  been  the  practice, 
than  a  black  and  harsh  outline  of  ink.  Fust  and  Schoeffer, 
however,  introduced,  and  their  followers  adopted,  black  ink, 
and  were  so  skillful  in  compounding  it  that  their  works  pre- 
sent a  depth  and  richness  of  color  which  excites  the  envy  of 
the  moderns  ;  nor  has  it  turned  brown,  or  rendered  the  sur- 
rounding paper  in  the  slightest  degree  dingy.  The  method 
of  applying  it  to  the  types  was  by  means  of  balls  of  skin 


Printing — History.  49 

stuffed  with  wool,  in  every  respect  the  same  as  those  used 
fifty  years  ago.  The  ink  was  laid  in  some  thickness  on  a 
corner  of  a  stone  slab,  and  taken  thence  in  small  quantities 
and  ground  by  a  muller,  and  thence  again  taken  by  the  balls 
and  applied  to  the  types.  The  types  appear  to  have  been 
disposed  in  cases  very  much  the  same  as  ours.  The  com- 
posing-stick differs  somewhat,  but  cannot  now  be  very  clearly 
made  out.  The  different  operations  of  casting  the  type, 
composing,  reading,  and  working,  are  mostly  represented  in 
the  same  apartment;  but,  it  is  probable, more  for  the  sake  of 
pictorial  unity,  than  because  such  was  really  the  custom. 
There  must  have  been  many  workmen  engaged  in  most  of  the 
old  establishments  ;  and  they  well  knew  the  value  of  cleanli- 
ness, which  is  unattainable  where  all  the  operations  are  car- 
ried on  together. 

The  general  and  original  belief  is  that  William  Caxton, 
who  for  thirty  years  resided  in  the  Low  Countries,  under  the 
reign  of  Charles  the  Bold,  and  who  had  taken  every  oppor- 
tunity of  learning  the  new  art,  and  had  availed  himself  of 
the  capture  of  Mentz  to  secure  one  of  the  fugitive  workmen 
of  Fust  and  Schoeffer,  established  a  printing-office  at  Cologne, 
where  he  printed  the  French  original  and  his  own  translation 
of  the  Recuyell  of  the  History es  of  Troye ;  that  whilst  at 
Cologne  he  became  acquainted  with  Wynkyn  de  Worde, 
Theoderick  Rood,  both  foreigners,  and  Thomas  Hunte  his 
countryman,  who  all  subsequently  became  printers  in  Eng- 
land;  that  he  afterward  transferred  his  materials  to  Eng- 
land ;  that  Wynkyn  de  Worde  came  over  with  him,  and 
probably  was  the  superintendent  of  his  printing  establish- 
ment; that  his  first  press  was  established  at  Westminster, 
perhaps  in  one  of  the  chapels  attached  to  the  abbey,  and 
certainly  under  the  protection  of  the  abbot;  and  that  he 
there  produced  the  first  book  printed  in  England,  the  Game 
of  Chess^  which  was  completed  on  the  last  day  of  March, 
1474. 

The  correctness  of  these  facts  is  not  matter  of  dispute,  all 
writers  agreeing  that  Caxton  did  so  set  up  his  press  at  West- 
minster, and  print  his  Game  of  Chess  in  1474 ;  but  it  has 
been  asserted  that  Caxton  was  not  the  first  printer,  nor  his 
book  the  first  book  printed,  in  this  country.  Neither  does 
the  controversy  rest  upon  the  contradictory  statements  of 
4 


• 


60  Five  Black  Arts. 

many  writers,  for  all  authors  of  the  same  and  succeeding 
period  agree  in  ascribing  the  honor  to  Caxton  ;  and  when,  in 
1642,  a  dispute  arose  between  the  Stationers'  Company  and 
certain  persons  who  printed  by  virtue  of  a  patent  from  the 
crown,  concerning  the  validity  of  this  patent,  a  committee 
was  appointed,  who  heard  evidence  for  and  against  the  pe- 
titioners, and  throughout  the  proceedings  Caxton  was  ac- 
knowledged as   incontestibly  the  first  printer  in  England. 
Thus  Caxton  seemed  to  be  established  as  the  first  English 
typographer,  when,  soon  after  the  Restoration,  a  quarto  vol- 
ume of  forty-one  leaves  was  discovered  in  the  library  at 
Cambridge,  bearing  the  title  of  Exposicio  Sancti  Jewnymi 
in  Symholum  Apostolorum  ad  Papam  Laurentium,  and  at 
the  end,  "  ExpUcit  Exposicio  Sancti  Jeronymi  in  Simbolo 
Apostolorum  ad  papam  Laurentium,  Oxonie  Et  finita.  Anno 
Domini  M.cccc.LXViii.  xvii.  die  decembris.'*     Upon  the  pro- 
duction of  this  book  the  claim  for  priority  of  printing  was  set 
up  for  Oxford.     In  the  year  1644  Richard  Atkyns,  who  then 
enjoyed  a  patent  from  the  crown,  and  whose  claims  conse- 
quently brought  him  into  collision  with  the  Stationers'  Com- 
pany, and  who  was  desirous  of  establishing  the  prerogative 
of  the  sovereign,  published  a  thin  quarto  work,  entitled  The 
Original   and  G-roivih   of  Printing,   collected  out  of  the 
History  and  the  Records  of  the  Kingdome  ;  wherein  is  also 
demonstrated  that  Printing  appertaineth  to  the  Prerogative 
Royal,  and  is  a  Flower  of  the  Crown  of  England.     The 
book  was  published  "  hy  order  and  appointment  of  the  Right 
Hon.  Mr.  Secretary  Morrice.^'    In  support  of  this  proposition 
Atkyns  asserted  that  he  had  received  from  an  anonymous 
friend  a  copy  of  a  manuscript  discovered  at  Lambeth  Pal- 
ace, amongst  the  archiepiscopal  archives.     The  following  is 
an  abstract  of  this  document :     "  Thomas  Bouchier,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  earnestly  moved  the  king,  Henry  VI., 
to  use  all  possible  means  to  procure  a  printing  mould,  to 
which  the  king  willingly  assented,  and  appropriated  to  the 
undertaking  the  sum  of  1500  merks,  of  which  sum  Bouchier 
contributed  300.     Mr.  Turnour,  the  king's  master  of  the 
robes,  was  the  person  selected  to  manage  the  business ;  and 
he,  taking  with  him  Mr.  William  Caxton,  proceeded  to  Har- 
lem in  Holland,  where  John  Guthenberg  had  recently  in- 
vented the  art,  and  was  himself  personally  at  work  ;  their 


Printing — History.  51 

design  being  to  give  a  considerable  sum  to  any  person  who 
should  draw  away  one  of  Guthenberg's  workmen.     With 
some  difficulty  they  succeeded  in  purloining  one  of  the  under- 
workmen,  Frederick  Corsellis ;  and  it  not  being  prudent  to 
set  him'  to  work  in  London,  he  was  sent  under  a  guard  to 
Oxford,  and  there  closely  watched  until  he  had  made  good 
his  promise  of  teaching  the  secrets  of  the  art.     Printing  was 
therefore  practiced  in  England  before  France,  Italy,  or  Ger- 
many, which  claims  priority  of  Harlem  itself,  though  it  is 
known  to  be  otherwise,  that  city  gaining  the  art  from  the 
brother  of  one  of  the  workmen,  who  had  learned  it  at  home 
of  his  brother,  and  afterward  set  up  for  himself  at  Mentz." 
The  Exposicio  is  asserted  by  inference  to  be  the  work  of 
Corsellis.     That  this  document  is  a  forgery  may  be  safely 
assumed ;  because  of  the  more  than  unsatisfactory  manner 
in  which  it  is  said  to  have  been  obtained  ;  because  no  one 
ever  saw  this  copy ;  because  no  one,  except  the  unknown, 
ever  saw  the  original,  for  it  is  not  amongst  the  archives  nor 
in  the  library  of  Lambeth  Palace,  nor  was  it  when  the  Earl 
of  Pembroke  made  diligent  search  for  it  in  17 — ,  nor  was  it 
found  when  the  manuscripts,  books,  and  muniments  were 
moved  into  a  new  building;  because  Caxton  himself,  who 
took  so  important  a  share  in  the  alleged  abduction  of  the 
workman,  states  that  twelve  years  afterward  he  was  dili- 
gently engaged  in  learning  the  art  at  Strasburg,  and  repeat- 
edly ascribes  the  invention  to  Gutenberg,  "  at  Mogunce  in 
Almayne ;"  because,  when  three  years  afterward  the  Sta- 
tioners'  Company  instituted  legal  proceedings  against  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  to   restrain  them  from  printing, 
this  document  was  rejected,  as  resting  only  on  Atkyns's  au- 
thority ;  because  Archbishop  Parker,  in  his  account  of  Bour- 
chicr,  mentions  the  invention  of  printing  at  Mentz,  but  makes 
no  claim  for  his  having  introduced  it  into  England ;  and 
Godwin,  de  FrcesuUhus  Angelice,  says  that  Bourchier,  during 
his  primacy  of  thirty-two  years,  did  nothing  remarkable,  save 
giving  120^.  for  poor  scholars,  and  some  books  to  the  univer- 
sity, and  that  he  minutely  examined  two  registers  of  his  pro- 
ceedings during  this  term,  without  making  any  mention  of 
his  having  found  therein  any  record  of  so  remarkable  a  trans- 
action ;  because,  since  these  transactions  must  have  taken 
place  before  1459,  Henry  VI.  was  at  that  time  struggling 


62  Five  Black  Arts. 

fearfully  for  his  throne  and  life,  Edward  IV.  being  crowned 
in  that  year  ;  from  internal  evidence  of  the  document  itself, 
for,  not  to  mention  the  weak  evidence  for  the  city  of  Harlem, 
it  is  quite  certain  that  Gutenberg  never  printed  there,  and 
by  Junius  the  theft  is  ascribed  to  John  Fust,  who  certainly 
was  a  rich  goldsmith  of  Mentz ;  "whereupon  Meerman,  find- 
ing these  statements  at  variance  with  possibility,  boldly  in- 
vents another  theory,  making  the  sufferers  Koster's  grand- 
sons, who  never  printed,  as  far  as  is  known,  and  the  robber 
Corsellis  himself;  and,  lastly,  because  six  years  elapsed  be- 
tween this  asserted  introduction  and  the  publication  of  his 
Exposicio^  and  eleven  years  between  this  and  any  other  pub- 
lication from  any  Oxford  press.  Although  these  facts  en- 
tirely confute  the  pretensions  of  Corsellis,  there  nevertheless 
remains  the  book  itself,  and  unless  some  evidence  can  be  pro- 
duced, Oxford  will  still  maintain  the  distinction  of  having 
printed  the  earliest  book  in  England.  Some  of  the  most 
learned  bibliographers  entirely  refuse  their  assent  to  the  gen- 
uineness of  the  book.  Middleton  asserts  that  there  must  be 
an  error  of  an  x  in  the  imprint,  and  produces  many  remark- 
able instances  of  similar  typographical  errors.  This,  how- 
ever, is  mere  assertion ;  and,  as  in  the  Lambeth  record,  the 
best  evidence  is  to  be  sought  in  the  production  itself ;  ac- 
cordingly the  work  is  printed  with  cast  metal  types,  which 
are  not  proved  to  have  been  used  by  Koster  at  all,  that  art 
being  invented  by  Gutenberg,  Fust,  and  Schoeffer  at  May- 
ence.  The  letter  is  of  very  elegant  cut,  the  pages  regular, 
and  the  whole  work  has  the  appearance  of  having  been  exe- 
cuted at  a  considerably  advanced  era  of  the  art.  Another 
and  a  good  argument  is,  that  the  -work  has  signatures,  or 
marks  for  the  binder,  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  which  were  not 
used  on  the  Continent  before  1472,  by  John  Koelhoff  at  Co- 
logne. The  evidence  in  favor  of  Caxton  is  direct  and 
strong  ;  the  date  of  the  Oxford  book  is  contradicted  by  in- 
ternal evidence,  and  discredited  by  the  story  set  up  in  its 
support;  there  seems,  therefore,  no  sufficient  ground  for 
withdrawing  from  Caxton  the  fame  of  being  the  introducer 
of  printing  into  England. 

William  Caxton  was  born  about  the  year  1412,  in  the 
Weald  of  Kent.  His  father  was  a  wealthy  merchant,  trad- 
ing in  wool.    He  was  brought  up  to  the  business  of  a  mer- 


Printing — History.  53 

cer,  and  conducted  himself  so  much  to  his  master's  satis- 
faction, that  on  his  death  he  bequeathed  him  the  then 
considerable  sum  of  twenty  marks.  Caxton  then  proceeded, 
probably  as  the  agent  of  the  Mercers'  Company,  into  the 
Low  Countries.  He  must  have  been  a  man  of  some  wealth 
and  consideration,  for  in  1464  he  and  Richard  Wethenhall 
were  appointed  by  Edward  IV.  "  embassadors  and  special 
deputies"  to  continue  and  confirm  a  treaty  of  commerce 
between  him  and  Philip,  duke  of  Burgundy ;  and,  upon  the 
marriage  of  Edward's  sister  Margaret  with  Charles  duke  of 
Burgundy,  he  was  appointed  to  the  household  retinue  of  the 
princess,  by  whom  he  appears  to  have  been  treated  with 
much  familiarity  and  confidence ;  for  at  her  instigation  he 
first  commenced  his  literary  labors,  and  he  mentions  her  as 
repeatedly  commanding  him  to  amend  his  English.  His  first 
work  was  a  translation  of  the  Recuyell  of  the  Historyes  of 
Troye^  which  he  afterward  printed  at  Strasburg,  when  his 
leisure  had  allowed  him  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  study  of 
printing.  The  first  production  of  his  press  is  allowed  to  be 
the  French  Recuyell  above  mentioned,  his  second  the  Oracion 
of  John  Russell  on  Charles  Duke  of  Burgundy  being  creat- 
ed a  Knight  of  the  Garter,  which  took  place  in  1469.  Of 
his  transactions  between  1471  and  1474  there  is  no  record ; 
probably  he  was  engaged  in  the  diligent  pursuit  of  the  art, 
and  preparing  to  transfer  his  materials  to  England,  which  he 
accomplished  some  time  before  1477,  when  we  find  him  print- 
ing in  or  near  the  Abbey  of  Westminster,  of  which  Thomas 
Milling,  bishop  of  Hereford,  was  at  that  time  abbot.  The 
first  production  of  his  English  press  was  the  Game  of  Chess^ 
bearing  date  1474,  which  work,  however,  some  assert  to 
have  been  printed  by  him  at  Cologne.  His  next  production 
was  the  BoJce  of  the  hoole  lyf  of  Jason;  but  his  first  book 
bearing  date  and  place  in  the  colophon  is  the  Dictes  and  Say- 
ings of  Philosophres,  a  translation  from  the  French  by  the 
gallant  Earl  Rivers,  "  at  Westmestre,  the  yere  of  our  lord 
M.cccc.lxxvij."  From  this  time  he  continued  both  to  print 
and  translate  with  great  spirit.  His  "  capital  work  "  was  a 
Book  of  the  noble  Historyes  of  Kyng  Arthur,  in  1485,  the 
most  beautiful  production  of  his  press. 

There  is  but  one  copy  of  any  of  Caxton's  works  printed 
upon  vellum  ;  it  is  the  Doctrinal  of  Sapyence,     "  Translated 


64  Five  Black  Arts. 

out  of  Frensshe  in  to  Englysshe  by  wjlljam  Caxton  at  West- 
mestre.  Fjnyshed  the  vij  day  of  May  the  yere  of  our  lord 
M.cccG.lxxix.  Caxton  me  fieri  fecit."  This  unique  copy  is 
in  the  library  at  Windsor,  and  it  is  in  beautiful  preservation. 
It  is  moreover  doubly  unique,  for  it  contains  an  additional 
chapter,  to  be  found  in  no  other  copy  whatever,  and  which 
is  entitled  "  Of  the  negligencies  happening  in  the  Masse  and 
of  the  Remedies.  Cap.  Ixiiij."  It  is  a  curious  treatise  of 
minute  omissions  and  commissions  likely  to  occur  in  the  ser- 
vice of  mass,  with  directions  how  to  remedy  such  evils.  Of 
their  importance  here  are  two  specimens,  "  If  by  any  neg- 
ligence fyl  (fall)  any  of  the  blood  of  the  Sacrament  on  the 
corporus^  or  upon  any  of  the  vestments,  then  ought  to  cut 
off  the  piece  on  which  it  is  fallen,  and  ought  well  to  be  wash- 
en,  and  that  piece  to  be  kept  with  the  other  relics."  "  And 
if  the  body  of  Jesu  Christ,  or  any  piece,  fall  upon  the  pal^ 
of  the  altar,  or  upon  any  of  the  vestments  that  ben  blessed, 
the  piece  ought  not  to  be  cut  off  on  which  it  is  fallen,  but  it 
ought  right  well  to  be  washen,  and  the  washing  to  be  given 
to  the  ministers  for  to  drink,  or  else  drink  it  himself."  This 
singular  treatise  finishes  with  this  grave  confession,  "  This 
chapitre  to  fore  I  durst  not  sett  in  the  booke,  by  cause  it  is 
not  convenient  ne  appertaining  that  every  lay  man  should 
know  it  et  cetera." 

The  Royal  Library  possesses  another  work  of  Caxton, 
which,  as  a  perfect  copy,  is  also  unique^  This  is  the  "  Sub- 
tyl  Historyes  and  Fables  of  Esope.  Translated  out  of 
Frenshe  in  to  Englyshe  by  Wyllyam  Caxton  at  Westmynstre 
In  the  yere  of  our  lord  M  cccc  Ixxxiij  Emprynted  by  the 
same  the  xxvj  daye  of  Marche  the  yere  of  our  lorde 
M  cccc  Ixxxiiij  And  the  fyrste  yere  of  the  regno  of  kyng 
Rycharde  the  thyrde."  It  consists  of  142  leaves.  Each 
fable  is  illustrated  by  a  rude  wood-cut,  all  of  which  are  said 
to  have  been  executed  abroad,  where  similar  editions  of  ^sop 
were  frequently  printed.  They  are,  however,  most  probably, 
copied ;  for  there  is  nothing  either  in  their  design  or  execu- 
tion that  a  most  moderate  artist  might  not  perform  ;  and  this 
will  equally  apply  to  other  wood-cuts  interspersed  in  Caxton's 
works. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  works  of  Caxton  have  been 
eagerly  sought  for  by  English  bibliomaniacs.     The  most  re- 


Printing — History.  55 

markable  instances  of  this  are  the  enormous  prices  given 
for  some  of  them  at  the  sale  of  the  Duke  of  Roxburghe's 
library  before  mentioned.  The  Chastysing  of  Crod^s  Chil- 
dren was  knocked  down  to  Earl  Spencer  for  146Z.  The 
Sessions  Papers  were  bought  for  the  Society  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  for  378Z.  The  Duke  of  Devonshire  gave  351Z.  158.  for 
The  3Iirrour  of  the  World,  and  180^.  for  the  Kalendayr  of 
the  Shippers.  Gower's  Confessio  Amantis  produced  366Z.; 
The  Boke  of  Chyvalry,  336?.  The  Recuyell  of  the  Historyes 
of  Troye  gave  rise  to  a  startling  contest.  It  was  the  identi- 
cal copy  presented  by  Caxton  to  Elizabeth  Grey,  queen  of 
Edward  IV.  and  sister  of  his  patroness.  "  Sir  Mark  Sykes 
vigorously  pushed  on  his  courser  till  five  hundred  guineas 
were  bidden  ;  he  then  reined  in  the  animal,  and  turned  him 
gently  on  one  side  '  toward  the  green  sward.'  More  hun- 
dreds are  offered  for  the  beautiful  Elizabeth  Grey's  own 
copy.  The  hammer  vibrates  at  nine  hundred  guineas.  The 
sword  of  the  marquess  is  in  motion,  and  he  makes  another 
thrust — '  One  thousand  pounds.'  *  Let  them  be  guineas,' 
said  Mr.  Ridgway,  and  guineas  they  were.  The  marquess 
now  recedes.  He  is  determined  upon  a  retreat ;  another 
such  victory  as  the  one  he  has  just  gained  (the  Valdarfar 
Boccaccio)  must  be  destruction ;  and  Mr.  Ridgway  bears 
aloft  the  beauteous  prize  in  question."  (Dibdin.)  At  Mr. 
Willett's  sale  Tullius  of  Old  Age  produced  210?.,  and  be- 
came the  property  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire. 

Caxton  must  have  been  a  man  of  wonderful  perseverance 
and  erudition,  cultivated  and  enlarged  by  an  extensive  knowl- 
edge of  books  and  the  world.  Of  his  industry  and  devoted- 
ness  spme  idea  may  be  formed,  when  Wynkyn  de  Worde, 
his  successor,  states,  in  his  colophon  to  the  Vitce  Pairum, 
that  Caxton  finished  his  translation  of  that  work  from  French 
into  English  on  the  last  day  of  his  life.  He  died  in  1491, 
being  about  fourscore  years  of  age.  His  epitaph  has  been 
thus  written  by  some  friend  unknown  :  "  Of  your  charite 
pray  for  the  soul  of  Mayster  Willyam  Caxton,  that  in  hys 
tyme  was  a  man  of  moche  ornate  and  moche  renommed  wys- 
dome  and  connynge,  and  decesed  full  crystenly  the  yere  of 
our  Lord  MCCCCLXXXXi. 

Moder  of  Merci  sbyld  him  from  thorribul  fynd, 
And  bryng  hym  to  lyflf  eternal  that  neuer  hath  ynd." 


56  Five  Black  Arts. 

The  type  used  by  Caxton  is  in  design  very  inferior  to  that 
used  upon  the  Continent  even  earlier  than  his  period  ;  but 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  very  materially  improved  his 
fonts,  and  some  of  his  later  productions  are  very  elegantly 
cut.  The  design  is  peculiar  to  him,  and  is  said  to  be  in 
imitation  of  his  own  handwriting ;  it  bears,  however,  some 
resemblance  to  the  types  of  Ulric  Zell,  from  whom  Caxton 
derived  most  of  his  instruction,  and  is  something  between 
Secretary  and  Gothic,  He  appears  to  have  had  two  fonts 
of  JEnglish^  three  fonts  of  Great  Primer,  one  Double  Pica, 
and  one  Long  Primer*  He  used  very  few  ornamented 
initial  letters,  and  those  he  did  employ  are  very  inferior  in 
elegance  to  those  of  foreign  printers.  He  preferred  insert- 
ing a  small  capital  letter  within  a  large  space,  and  leaving 
the  interval  to  be  filled  up  according  to  the  taste  of  the 
illuminator,  owing  to  which  many  excellent  performances  are 
destitute  of  these  beautiful  ornaments.  Caxton's  ink  was 
not  remarkable  for  depth  of  color  or  richness  ;  his  paper  was 
excellent ;  and  he  probably  used  presses  of  the  same  con- 
struction as  the  continental  printers.  His  works  are  not  very 
rare,  but  are  highly  prized  by  English  collectors.  Copies  of 
one  or  more  of  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  most  collections 
of  any  pretension,  and  are  well  worthy  of  inspection.  The 
number  of  his  productions  is  sixty-two.  Although  Caxton 
was  the  first  English  printer,  he  was  not  the  only  one  of  his 
day,  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  Lettou  and  Machlinia,  Hunte, 
Pynson,  the  Oxford  printer  whoever  he  may  have  been,  and 
he  of  St.  Alban's,  being  his  cotemporaries. 

Wynkyn  de  Worde  came,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
from  Germany  with  Caxton,  and  remained  with  him  in  the 
superintendence  of  his  office  until  the  day  of  his  death,  when 
he  succeeded  to  the  business.  He  was  a  native  of  Lorraine, 
and  evidently  a  man  of  considerable  information  and  taste, 
and  of  great  spirit  in  the  conduct  of  his  affairs.  After  his 
succession  to  Caxton's  business,  he  carried  on  in  the  same 
premises  for  about  six  years,  when  he  removed  to  the  ''  Sygn 
of  the  Sonne  in  flete  strete,  against  the  condyth."  De 
Worde  appears  to  have  immediately  commenced  a  complete 
renovation  of  the  art,  cutting  many  new  fonts  of  all  sizes, 

*  These  are  tei-ms  by  which  modern  printers  distinguish  the  sizes  of  their 
type. 


Printing — History.  57 

with  vast  improvement  of  the  design  and  proportion ;  he 
moreover  provided  his  cotemporaries,  then  becoming  very 
numerous,  with  type  ;  and  it  is  even  said  that  some  of  the 
letter  used  by  the  English  printers  less  than  a  century  ago 
are  from  his  matrices,  nay,  that  the  punches  are  still  in  exist- 
ence. He  was  the  first  (or  Pynson)  to  introduce  Roman 
letters  into  England,  which  he  made  use  of  amongst  his 
Gothic  to  distinguish  any  thing  remarkable,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  Italic  is  used  in  the  present  day.  His  works  amount 
to  the  extraordinary  number  of  four  hundred  and  eight. 
"  His  books  are,  in  general,  distinguished  by  neatness  and 
elegance,  and  are  always  free  from  professed  immorality. 
The  printer  has  liberally  availed  himself  of  such  aid  as  could 
be  procured  from  the  sister  art  of  engraving ;  although  it 
must  be  confessed  that  by  far  the  greater,  if  not  the  whole, 
number  of  wood-engravings  at  this  period  are  of  foreign  exe- 
cution ;  nor  is  it  without  a  smile  that  the  typographical  anti- 
quary discovers  the  same  cut  introduced' into  works  of  a 
directly  opposite  nature.'* 

In  his  Instruction  for  Pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land  ^  printed 
in  1523,  the  text  of  which  is  in  Roman,  and  the  marginal 
notes  in  Italics,  he  makes  the  first  use  in  England  of  Greek, 
which  is  in  movable  type,  of  Arabic  and  Hebrew,  which  are 
cut  in  wood ;  and  the  author  complains  that  he  is  obliged  to 
omit  a  third  part,  because  the  printer  had  no  Hebrew  types. 
Appended  to  the  work  are  three  Latin  epistles,  in  which  he 
makes  use  of  Arabic. 

His  works  are,  of  course,  not  so  rare  as  those  of  his  pre- 
decessor, but  are  nevertheless  much  sought  after  ;  and,  when 
sold  by  the  side  of  the  Caxtons  at  the  Duke  of  Roxburghe's 
sale,  produced  large  prices.  Bartholomceus  de  Proprieta" 
tibus  Berum,  the  first  book  printed  on  paper  made  in  Eng- 
land, was  bought  by  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  for  101.  Is. 
Chaucer's  Troylus  and  Cresseide,  43?.;  Hawys's  Exemple  of 
Vertu,  QOl. ;  Passetyme  of  Pleasure,  81Z.  ;  Castell  of 
Pleasure,  61 Z.;  The  Moste  Pyteful  Hy story e  of  the  Noble 
Appolyon,  Kynge  of  Thyre,  11 OZ. 

De  Worde  died  about  the  year  1534.  In  his  will,  still  in 
the  Prerogative  Office,  dated  5th  June,  1534,  he  bequeaths 
many  legacies  of  books  to  his  friends  and  servants,  with 
minute  directions  for  payment  of  small  creditors  and  for- 


58  Five  Black  Arts. 

giveness  of  debtors,  betokening  a  conscientious  and  kindly 
disposition.  His  device  is  generally  that  of  Caxton,  with 
his  own  name  added  to  the  bottom  ;  but  he  also  used  a  much 
more  complicated  one,  consisting  of  fleurs-de-lis,  lions  pas- 
sant, portcullis,  harts,  roses,  and  other  emblazonments  of  the 
later  Plantagenets  and  the  Tudors. 

John  Lettou  and  William  Machlinia  printed  separately 
and  jointly  before  the  death  of  Caxton,  but  were  very  inferi- 
or to  him  in  every  respect ;  their  type  being  most  especially 
barbarous.  Their  works  are  not  very  numerous,  and  are 
principally  upon  legal  subjects  ;  they  printed  the  first  edition 
of  Lyttleton's  Tenures. 

Richard  Pynson  was  a  Norman  by  birth,  and  studied 
the  art  of  printing  under  his  "  worshipful  master  William 
Caxton."  It  would  seem  that  he  was  an  earlier  printer  than 
Wynkyn  de  Worde,  having  established  an  office  before  the 
death  of  Caxton.  His  first  work  is  of  date  1493,  and  was 
printed  "  at  the  Temple-har  of  London."*^  He  enjoyed  high 
patronage,  and  was  appointed  by  Henry  VII.  to  be  his 
printer  before  1503.  He  is  perhaps  inferior  to  De  Worde 
as  a  typographer,  his  first  types  being  extremely  rude.  He 
afterward  used  a  font  of  De  Worde's,  and  another  peculiar 
to  himself  in  this  country,  probably  imported  from  France. 
Some  of  his  larger  works,  Fabian's  Chronicle,  Lord  Berner's 
translation  of  Froissart  (which  are  the  first  editions  of  these 
important  additions  to  English  literature),  and  some  of  his 
law-works,  are  very  fine  specimens  of  the  art.  His  device 
was  a  curious  compound  of  R  and  P,  on  a  shield  which  is 
sometimes  supported  by  two  naked  figures. 

Richard  Grafton  claims  especial  notice.  He  was  by 
trade  a  grocer,  although  of  good  family.  Of  his  education 
nothing  appears ;  but  he  was  one  of  the  most  voluminous  au- 
thors of  his  time,  having,  by  his  own  account,  written  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  Hall's  Chronicles,  an  Abridgment  of 
the  Chronicles  of  England,  and  a  Manual  of  the  same,  a 
Chronicle  at  Larg^,  and  other  books  of  historical  character, 
under  what  circumstances  is  not  known.  In  1537  Grafton 
published  Thomas  Mathew's  translation  of  the  Bible,  which 
was  printed  abroad,  but  where  is  not  satisfactorily  ascertained ; 
and  in  1588  the  Testament  translated  by  Miles  Coverdale, 
which  was  printed  at  Paris  by  Francis  Regnault.     At  this 


Printing — History.  59 

time  it  would  not  appear  that  English  printers  were  in  high 
estimation  ;  for  Lord  Cromwell,  desirous  of  having  the  Bible 
in  the  English  language,  thought  it  necessary  to  procure 
from  Henry  YIII.  letters  to  the  king  of  France  for  license 
to  print  it  at  Paris,  and  urged  Bonner  to  tender  his  earnest 
assistance.  Bonner  entered  upon  the  undertaking  with  such 
zeal,  that  in  recompense  he  was  soon  afterward  appointed 
to  the  bishopric  of  Hereford.  Miles  Coverdale  had  charge 
of  the  correctness  (see  his  letter,  Gent.'s  Mag.  1791),  and 
Richard  Grafton  and  Edward  Whitchurch  were  the  proprie- 
tors ;  but  under  what  arrangement  does  not  appear.  When 
the  work  was  on  the  point  of  completion,  the  Inquisitors  of 
the  Faith  interfered,  seized  the  sheets,  and  Grafton,  Whit- 
church, and  Coverdale  were  compelled  to  make  precipitate 
flight.  The  avarice  of  the  lieutenant-criminal  induced  him 
to  sell  the  sheets  for  waste  paper  instead  of  destroying  them, 
and  they  were  in  part  repurchased.  Under  the  protec- 
tion of  Cromwell  they  next,  after  many  difl5culties,  ob- 
tained their  types  and  other  materials  from  Paris,  and  the 
Bible  was  completed  at  London  in  1539.  "Thus  they  be- 
came printers  themselves,  which  before  this  affair  they  never 
intended."  The  edition  consisted  of  2500  copies.  Crom- 
well next  procured  for  them  a  privilege  (not  an  exclusive 
one,  however)  for  printing  the  Scriptures  for  five  years. 
Very  shortly  after  the  death  of  Lord  Cromwell,  Grafton  was 
imprisoned  for  printing  Mathew's  Bible  and  the  Great  Bible, 
his  former  friend  Bonner  much  exaggerating  the  case  against 
him.  The  prosecution,  however,  was  not  followed  up  ;  but 
in  a  short  time  he  was,  with  Whitchurch,  appointed  printer  to 
Prince  Edward,  with  special  patents  for  printing  all  church- 
service  books  and  primers.  The  document  is  curious.  It 
recites  that  such  "  bookes  had  been  prynted  by  strangiers  in 
other  and  strange  countreys,  partely  to  the  great  losse  and 
hynderance  of  our  subjects,  who  both  have  the  sufficient  arte, 
feate  and  treade  of  prynting,  and  partely  to  the  setting 
forthe  the  bysshopp  of  Home's  usurped  auctoritie,  and  ke- 
ping  the  same  in  contynuall  memorye ;"  and  that,  therefore, 
of  his  "  grace  especiall,  he  had  granted  and  geven  the  priv- 
ilege to  our  wel-biloved  subjects  Richard  Grafton  and  Ed- 
ward Whitchurch,  citezeins  of  London,''  exclusive  liberty  to 


60  Five  Black  Arts. 

print  all  such  books  for  seven  years,  upon  pain  of  forfeiture 
of  all  such  books  printed  elsewhere. 

One  Richard  Grafton,  supposed  to  be  the  above,  was  mem- 
ber of  parliament  for  the  city  of  London  in  1553-54,  and 
also  in  1556-57,  and  in  1562  was  member  for  Coventry. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  1572,  and  not  in  very 
affluent  circumstances.  He  used  a  punning,  or,  as  the  her- 
alds would  call  it,  a  canting  device,  of  a  young  tree  or  graft 
growing  out  of  a  tun.  His  works  are  distinguished  for  their 
beauty,  and  are  very  numerous  and  costly.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  careful  and  meritorious  of  English  printers. 

These  are  the  titles  of  a  few  of  his  early  Bibles,  etc. 

The  Byble,  1537,  folio.  "  The  Byble,  which  is  all  the 
holy  Scripture:  In  whych  are  contayned  the  Olde  and 
Newe  Testament  truly  and  purely  translated  into  Englysh 
by  Thomas  Mathew.  Esaye  1 1^^  Hearcken  to  ye  heauens, 
and  thou  earth  geaue  eare :  For  the  Lorde  speaketh. 
M.D.xxxvii."  The  title  of  the  New  Testament  is,  "  The 
newe  Testament  of  our  sauyor  Jesu  Christ,  newly  and  dyly- 
gently  translated  into  Englyshe,  with  Annotacions  in  the 
Mergent  to  help  the  Reader  to  the  vnderstandyng  of  the 
Texte."     This  was  printed  in  France. 

The  New  Testament,  Latin  and  English.  1538.  Octavo. 
"The  new  testament  both  in  Latin  and  English  after  the 
vulgare  texte  ;  which  is  red  in  the  churche.  Translated  and 
corrected  by  Myles  Couerdale :  and  prynted  in  Paris,  by 
Fraunces  Regnault.  M.  ccccc.  xxxviii  in  Nouembre. 
Prynted  for  Richard  Grafton  and  Edward  Whitchurch,  cyt- 
ezens  of  London.     Cum  gratia  &  priuilegio  regis." 

The  Byble  in  Englysshe.  1539.  Folio.  "  The  Byble 
in  Englyshe,  that  is  to  saye  the  content  of  all  the  holy  Scryp- 
ture,  bothe  of  y®  olde,  and  newe  testament,  truly  translated 
after  the  veryte  of  the  Hebrue  and  Greke  textes,  by  y  dyly- 
gent  studye  of  dyuerse  excellent  learned  men,  expert  in  the 
forsayde  tongues.  Prynted  hy  Rychard  Grafton^  and  Ed- 
ward Whitchurclie.  Cum  priuilegio — solum.  1539."  This 
is  a  very  superb  book,  and  is  the  one  which  was  commenced 
at  Paris  and  finished  at  London  under  the  circumstances  be- 
fore related. 

Newe    Testament    in    Englysshe.     1540.     Quarto. 


Printing — History.  61 

"  Translated  after  the  texte  of  Master  Erasmus  of  Rotero- 
dame." 

The  Prymer.     English  and  Latin.     1540.     Octavo. 

The  Byble  in  Englyshe.  1540.  Folio.  A  noble 
volume,  called,  from  the  preface,  Cranmer's  Bjble. 

The  Byble  in  Englyshe.  1541.  Folio.  "The  Bj- 
ble  in  Englyshe  of  the  largest  and  greatest  volume,  aucto- 
rised  and  appojnted  by  the  commaundement  of  oure  raoost 
redoubted  prynce  and  soueraygne  Lorde,  Kynge  Henrye  the 
VIII,  supreme  head  of  this  his  churche  and  realme  of  Eng- 
lande  :  to  be  frequented  and  vsed  in  euery  Churche  within 
this  his  sayd  realme,  accordyng  to  the  tenoure  of  hys  former 
Jniunctions  geuen  in  that  behalfe.  Ouersene  and  perused  at 
the  comaundement  of  the  kynges  hyghnes,  by  the  ryght  reu- 
erend  fathers  in  God  Cuthbert  byshop  of  Duresme,  and 
Nicholas,  bisshop  of  Rochester.'*  The  lines  of  the  title  are 
printed  alternately  red  and  black. 

Such,  with  many  other  manuals,  primers,  etc.,  were  the 
productions  of  this  most  eminent  British  typographer. 

The  first  complete  edition  of  Shakspeare's  plays  was 
printed  by  Isaac  Jaggard  and  Edward  Blount,  in  folio,  in 
1623.  Of  his  single  plays,  the  earliest  is  "  The  first  part 
of  the  Contention  betwixt  the  two  famous  Houses  of  Yorke 
and  Lancaster,"  which  was  printed  by  "  Thomas  Creed  for 
Thomas  Millington,  and  are  to  be  sold  at  his  shop,  under 
Saint  Peter's  Church,  Cornwall"  (Cornhill),  in  1594. 
These  plays  were  printed  by  various  typographers,  amongst 
whom  appear  the  names  of  George  Eld,  Valentine  Simmes, 
R.  Young,  John  Robson,  and  others  who  only  give  their  ini- 
tials. 

The  first  edition  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  was  printed  in 
quarto  by  Peter  Parker  in  the  year  1667  ;  the  Paradise 
Regained  in  1671. 

During  the  troublesome  times  that  preceded  the  great  re- 
bellion, the  Puritans,  jealously  watched  and  persecuted, 
introduced  the  anomaly  of  ambulatory  presses,  which  were 
constantly  removed  from  town  to  town  to  escape  the  vigilance 
of  the  Star  Chamber.  At  these  presses  many  of  Milton's 
controversial  pamphlets  were  printed;  and  it  is  even  said  that 
the  identical  press  at  which  the  Areopagitiea  was  printed  is 


62  Five  Black  Aets. 

still  in  existence,  and  was  lately  in  the  possession  of  Mr. 
Valpy,  the  well-known  printer  of  the  Variorum  Classics. 

It  is  a  very  pleasing  reflection,  that  the  earlier  practition- 
ers of  the  art  did,  by  their  uniform  good  character  and  relig- 
ious turn,  tend  much  to  render  their  profession  productive  of 
a  highly  moral  class  of  literature,  and  to  raise  it  in  the  esti- 
mation of  all  men.  Had  they  been  less  respectable,  had 
they  turned  their  attention  to  the  many  ribald  and  tasteless 
writings  of  those  times,  the  effect  of  the  new  art  would  have 
been  to  degrade  literature  and  lower  morals,  to  delay  the 
spread  of  knowledge,  and  to  give  a  depression  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  art  and  its  practitioners,  from  which  possibly  they 
might  never  have  recovered.  These  excellent  and  learned 
men  appear  to  have  received  their  temporal  reward,  in  public 
estimation,  sufficient  wealth,  and  a  length  of  years  beyond 
the  ordinary  term  of  mortality. 

Setting  aside  the  claim  of  Corsellis,  printing  was  first 
practiced  at  Oxford  by  Theoderic  Rood  and  Thomas  Hunte 
from  1480  to  1485.  In  Rymer,  vol.  xv.  is  a  grant  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  to  Thomas  Cooper,  clerk  of  Oxford,  for  the  exclu- 
sive printing  of  his  Latin  Dictionary.  In  1585  a  printing- 
press  was  established  at  the  expense  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester, 
chancellor  of  the  university.  Joseph  Barnes  was  appointed 
printer  to  the  university  in  1585. 

At  Cambridge  John  Siberch  printed  in  1521,  when  Eras- 
mus resided  there,  and  probably  executed  some  of  his  books. 
Thomas  Thomas,  M.A.,  was  the  printer  to  the  university  in 
1584. 

At  Sr.  Alban's  printing  was  very  early  practiced,  certainly 
in  the  year  1480.  It  would  appear  that  the  printer  was  a 
schoolmaster.  It  has  been  asserted,  but  without  shadow  of 
argument,  that  printing  was  introduced  here  many  years  be- 
fore Caxton, 

Printing  was  not  introduced  into  Scotland  till  thirty  years 
after  Caxton  had  set  up  his  press  at  Westminster.  Under 
the  patronage  of  James  IV.,  who  was  a  zealous  encourager 
of  learning  and  the  useful  arts,  Walter  Chepman  and  Andro 
Myllar  established  the  first  printing-press  at  Edinburgh,  as 
appears  by  a  royal  privilege  granted  to  them  in  1507.* 

*  "James,  &c.  To  al  and  sindrj  our  oflRciaris  legis  and  subdittis  quham 
it  efferis,  quhais  knawlage  thir  oun  lettres  salcum  greting ;  "Wit  ye  that 


Printing — History.  63 

The  only  publications  known  to  have  issued  from  the  press 
of  Myllar  and  Chepman  are  a  collection  of  pamphlets,  chiefly 
metrical  Romances  and  ballads,  in  1508,  of  which  an  imper- 
fect copy  is  preserved  in  the  Advocates'  Library  ;*  and  the 
Scottish  Service  Book,  including  the  Legends  of  the  Scot- 
tish Saints,  commonly  called  the  Breviary  of  Aberdeen,  in 
1509.t 

It  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  discontinuance  of  printing 
in  Scotland  for  about  twenty  years  after  this  time ;  probably 
the  disastrous  events  at  the  close  of  the  reign  of  James  IV. 
may  have  contributed  to  render  it  an  unprofitable  trade  ;  but 
in  its  revival  by  Davidson  there  was  no  deterioration,  either 
in  the  magnitude  and  importance  of  the  works  attempted,  or 
in  the  mode  in  which  the  mechanical  part  was  executed.  It 
was  probably  about  the  year  1536  that  he  printed,  in  a  black- 
letter  folio, '''  The  History  and  Croniklis  of  Scotland,  compilet 
and  newly  correkit  be  the  Reuerend  and  Noble  Gierke  Mais- 
ter  Hector  Boece.  Translatit  laitly  be  Maister  Johne  Bel- 
lenden.  Imprentit  in  Edinburgh  be  Thomas  Davidson,  dwell- 
ing foment  the  Frere  Wynd ;"  and  in  1540  he  printed  the 
whole  works  of  Sir  David  Lindsay. 

Davidson  was  succeeded  by  Lekprevik,  Vautrollier,  and 
others  ;  but  none  were  distinguished  as  printers  till  the  time 
of  Ruddiman. 

forsamekill  as  our  lovittis  servitouris  Walter  Chepman  and  Andro  Millar, 
burgessis  of  our  burgh  of  Edinburgh,  has  at  our  instance  and  request,  for 
our  plesour,the  honour  and  proflBt  of  our  Realrne  and  lieges,  takin  on  thame 
to  furnis  and  bring  hame  ane  prent,  with  all  stuff  belangand  tharto,  and 
expert  men  to  use  the  samyne,  for  imprenting  within  our  Realme  of  the 
bukis  of  our  Lawis,  actis  ot  parliament,  croniclis,  mess  bukis,  and  portuus 
efter  the  use  of  our  Realme,  with  addicions  and  legeudis  of  Scottis  Sanctis, 
now  gaderit  to  be  ekit  tharto,  and  al  uthcrls  bukis  that  salbe  sene  nccessar, 
and  to  sel  the  sammyn  for  competent  pricis,  be  our  avis  and  discrecioun 
thair  labouris  and  expens  being  considerit,"  etc. 

"  Geven  under  our  priv  Scl  at  Edinburgh  the  xv  day  of  September,  and 
of  our  Regne  the  xx**  yer." 

*  These  pamphlets  were  reprinted  in  a  handsome  quarto  volume,  edited 
by  Mr.  David  Laing.  The  preface  contains  much  accurate  information 
regarding  early  printing  in  Scotland. 

J  Of  this  Service  Book,  which  forms  two  volumes  octavo,  handsomely 
printed  with  red  and  black  letter,  in  the  years  1509  and  1510,  a  beauti- 
ful copy  is  preserved  in  the  University  Library  of  Edinburgh.  As  the 
name  and  device  of  Walter  Chepman  occur  in  the  work,  without  any  men- 
tion being  made  of  his  partner,  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  Andro 
Myllar,  if  then  alive,  had  relinquished  his  share  in  the  concern. 


64  Five  Black  Arts. 

A  mere  catalogue  of  printers  would  afford  little  amuse- 
ment and  less  instruction ;  especially  since  the  productions 
of  the  English  press,  save  in  the  works  of  the  printers  above 
named,  not  only  exhibited  no  advance,  but  even  much  deteri- 
oration, in  most  requisites  of  good  printing.  Indeed,  to  so 
low  a  point  had  the  art  fallen,  and  so  little  spirit  was  exhibited 
by  English  typographers,  that  the  regeneration  was  left  to 
an  alien,  whose  perception  of  the  inferiority  and  capacity  of 
improvement  at  once  raised  the  art  to  the  level  of  the  finest 
productions  of  Bodoni  and  Barbou. 

This  was  John  Baskerville,  a  japanner  of  Birmingham, 
who,  having  realized  a  considerable  fortune,  turned  his  at- 
tention to  cutting  punches  for  type,  and  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing a  series  of  fonts  of  remarkable  beauty,  so  excellently 
proportioned,  and  standing  so  well,  that  the  best  of  modern 
type-founders  (and  this  seems  the  Augustan  age  of  type- 
founding)  have  done  no  more  than  vary  the  proportions  and 
refine  the  more  delicate  lines  and  strokes.  Added  to  this, 
his  press-work  is  of  most  excellent  quality ;  his  paper  the 
choicest  that  could  be  procured ;  and  his  ink  has  a  richness 
of  tone,  the  mode  of  producing  which  has  died  with  him. 
The  works  of  Baskerville  are  amongst  the  choicest  that  can 
adorn  a  library.  He  died  in  1775.  His  types  and  punches 
were  purchased  to  print  the  splendid  edition  of  Voltaire's 
works  at  Paris.  He  was  worthily  succeeded  by  Bulmer, 
whose  magnificent  Shakspeare  and  Milton  are  amongst  the 
most  superb  books  ever  issued  from  the  press,  and,  with 
Macklin's  Bible  and  Ritchie's,  Bensly's  Hume,  and  other 
works,  may  be  fearlessly  produced  to  win  for  this  country  the 
palm  of  fine  printing ;  whilst  in  Scotland,  Thomas  Ruddiman 
and  the  two  Foulis  may  challenge  the  prize  of  classical  ty- 
pography from  Aldus  and  the  Stephani.  Indeed,  the  larger 
Greek  types  of  the  Foulis  are  without  parallel  for  grandeur, 
their  press-work  is  beautiful,  and  their  correctness  beyond 
all  praise. 

Modern  printers,  with  all  their  faults,  are  not  degenerate 
successors  of  these  worthies.  The  works  from  present  offices 
that  make  pretensions  to  fine  printing  need  not  be  ashamed 
of  comparison  with  these  chefs-d'ceuvres:  whilst,  from  the  vast 
improvements  in  the  mechanism  of  the  art  in  all  its  branches, 
paper,  presses,  ink,  type,  and  other  adjuncts,  the  average  of 


PRINTING.  ] 


[  Plate  1. 


TTPPEB     CASE 


* 

t 

LI 

II 

$ 

M 

3- 

-In 

am 

o 

■■ 

.' 

K 

% 

(E 

(E 

oe 

& 

[t 

& 

£ 

-■ 

-^ 

*-- 

y. 

.'a 

>^ 

% 

M 

JE 

le 

&. 

«> 

® 

« 

n 

•m 

•.•III 

•Mn 

K 

K 

K 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

r 

o 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

« 

I 

K 

L 

M 

N 

o 

II 

I 

K 

L 

M 

N 

0 

P 

Q 

R 

B 

T 

V 

w 

P 

Q 

R 

S 

T 

V 

W 

X         Y 

z 

J 

U 

] 

) 

X 

T 

Z 

J 

U 

fl 

in 

LOWER     CASE. 


•^^^_ 

^^^^^^ 

^^^^^^_ 

^^^ 

^^_ 

^^^^ 

IB 

81>  1  SI) 

'  1  k 

1  1  2 

3  1  4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

J 
? 

)) 

c 

d 

e 

i 

• 

f 

g 

ff 
fi 

9 
0 

z 

1 

m 

D 

h 

o 

y 

P 

» 

•w 

c 
c 

5 

1 

X 

q 

V 

u 

t 

thick 
space. 

a 

r 

— 

— 

quads.  1 

Figl. 


Printing — Practical.  65 

the  printing  of  the  present  day  is  infinitely  superior  to  that  of 
the  last  century.  But  in  what  relates  to  practical  skill,  cor- 
rectness, taste,  and  diligence,  we  cannot  hope  to  excel,  though 
we  may  perhaps  equal,  these  departed  masters. 

PRACTICAL  PRINTING. 

The  first  operation  when  the  new  font*  has  entered  the 
doors  of  the  printing-office,  is  to  lay  it  in  the  cases  (fig.  1). 
These  are  always  in  pairs  ;  the  upper  case  being  divided  into 
equal  spaces  or  boxes;  the  part  on  the  left  of  the  broader  di- 
vision being  appropriated  to  CAPITAL  letters,  figures,  di- 
aeresis vowels,  particular  sorts,  etc. ;  that  on  the  right  to 
SMALL  CAPITALS,  accented  letters,  and  references.  The  let- 
ters and  figures  are  arranged  in  alphabetical  and  numerical 
order,  from  left  to  right.  The  lower  case  is  divided  into  un- 
equal portions,  according  to  the  average  occurrence  of  the 
particular  letters ;  for  the  compositor  (the  workman  whose 
duty  it  is  to  lay  the  font,  and  afterward  to  place  together  or 
compose  the  separate  types  into  words)  never  looks  at  the  face 
of  the  letter  he  picks  up,  but  unhesitatingly  plunges  his 
fingers  into  any  box,  being  sure  that  the  letter  he  picks  out 
thence  is  the  one  to  which  that  box  is  appropriated,  and  con- 
sequently the  one  he  requires.  As  there  is  no  external 
mark  or  guide  attached  to  the  different  boxes  to  denote  the 
letters  they  contain,  a  stranger  is  not  a  little  surprised  and 
jmzzled  at  the  eccentric  movements  of  the  workman's  hand. 
Accordingly,  it  will  be  observed,  upon  looking  at  fig.  1,  that 
the  letter  e  has  a  box  one-half  larger  than  c,  d,  m,  n,  h,  u, 
t,  i,  s,  0,  a,  r;  and  these  are  twice  the  size  of  b,  1,  v,  k,  f, 
g,  y,  p,  w,  or  the  comma  ;  and  four  times  the  size  of  z,  x,  j, 
q,  or  the  []  crotchets,  full  points,  etc.  These  boxes  are  not 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  but  those  of  most  frequent 
occurrence  are  placed  about  the  middle  of  the  case  to  dimin- 
ish the  distance  the  hands  of  the  compositor  have  to  travel 
in  picking  up  and  receiving  the  types.  There  are  also  other 
pairs  of  cases  similarly  arranged  for  the  italic  letters.     The 

*  A  font  is  any  weight  of  type  of  the  same  body  and  face,  consisting 
of  every  letter,  stop,  figure,  etc.,  in  certain  proportions,  as  stated  on  page  66, 
together  with  spaces  and  quadrats. 

5 


400 

z    200 

800 

&       200 

3.000 

,   4,500 

8,000 

.   2,000 

500 

6Q  Five  Black  Arts. 

following  are  the  proportions  of  some  of  the  letters  in  a  font 
of  pica*  of  800  lbs.  weight : 

Capitals,  from  400  to  600  of  each,  but  of  J  80,  and  Q,  X  and  Z,  180. 
Small  capitals,  from  150  to  300  of  each,  excepting  J,  q,  x  and  z,  which,  as 
in  the  capitals,  are  reduced  in  number. 

a    8,500  b  1,600  j 

e  12,000  c  3.000  k 

i     8,000  d  4,000  m 

o     8,000  f    2,500  n 

u    3,400  h  6,400  q 

In  a  whole  font  there  are  about  150,000  letters,  spaces, 
and  figures. 

The  compositor,  having  placed  his  copy  upon  a  part  of  the 
upper  case  little  used,  and  having  received  the  necessary  di- 
rections, takes  up  an  instrument  called  a  composing-stick 
(fig.  2),  (which,  as  well  as  the  way  of  holding  it  and  its  use, 
will  be  better  understood  by  reference  to  the  drawing  than 
by  description),  and  sliding  the  inner  movable  portion  wider 
or  closer  according  to  the  desired  width  of  the  page,  he  fast- 
ens it  with  a  screw ;  he  then  cuts  a  piece  of  brass  rule  to  fit 
in  easily  between  the  end  of  the  stick  and  slide,  and  which  is 
called  the  setting-rule^  This  rule  causes  the  letters  to  slip 
down  without  any  obstruction  from  the  screw-holes  of  the 
stick,  or  the  nicks  which  serve  to  distinguish  one  font  from 
another  and  enable  the  compositor,  by  turning  them  out- 
outward,  to  place  the  letters  in  their  proper  position.  He 
then  reads  the  first  few  words  of  his  copy,  takes  first  a  capi- 
tal letter  from  the  upper  case,  the  succeeding  letters  from  the 
lower  case,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  word  a  space,  which 
is  merely  the  shank  of  a  letter  without  any  face,  and  not  so 
high  as  a  letter  by  about  one-fourth  part ;  and  therefore,  not 
receiving  the  ink,  forms  the  blank  space  between  words ;  but 
sometimes,  through  carelessness,  it  is  allowed  to  stand  up,  in 
which  case  it  is  a  fearful  blotch  upon  a  fair  page,  and  must 
have  been  observed  by  most  readers.  He  then  proceeds  with 
his  next  word,  which  will  probably  consist  of  lower  case 
letters  only ;  and  so  on  until  he  has  arrived  at  the  end  of  his 
line.  It  is  most  likely,  however,  that  the  words  he  has  oc- 
casion to  compose,  with  the  necessary  spaces,  will  not  fill  up 

*  This  is  pica. 


Printing — Peactical.  6T 

the  exact  width  of  the  line,  and  that  there  will  be  sometimes 
too  much,  sometimes  too  little  room,  for  getting  in  the  whole 
or  part  of  the  next  word.  In  this  case  he  has  to  consider 
whether  it  will  be  better  to  crowd  the  line  and  get  in  the 
word  or  syllable,  or  make  the  line  more  open  and  take  it  over 
to  the  next  line ;  his  care  being  that  his  matter,  when  com- 
posed, shall  not  look  too  open  or  too  close.  Having  decided, 
he  takes  out  the  spaces  he  has  inserted,  and  puts  in  their 
stead  others  of  greater  or  less  width,  as  the  case  may  require, 
in  such  a  manner  that  on  the  face  of  the  line  being  touched, 
it  shall  not  feel  loose,  or  require  any  particular  pressure  to 
force  down  the  last  letter  into  its  proper  place.  This  being 
accomplished  in  an  artist-like  manner,  he  takes  out  his  setting- 
rule  and  places  it  in  front  of  his  line,  and  with  a  gentle  press- 
ure of  his  thumb  forces  both  back  into  the  composing-stick ; 
he  then  proceeds  in  a  similar  manner  w^ith  other  lines  until 
his  stick  is  full,  when,  placing  it  upon  ti  frame  on  which  the 
cases  rest,  his  setting-rule  being  in  front,  he  lifts  his  lines  out 
of  the  stick  and  places  them  upon  a  proper  instrument  called 
a  galley.  If,  however,  the  matter  is  to  be  leaded,  that  is,  if  the 
lines  of  types  are  to  be  more  apart  than  usual,  the  process 
is  a  little  different.  The  compositor  then  has  before  him  a 
quantity  of  pieces  of  metal  called  leads,  of  the  exact  width 
of  the  page,  only  one-fourth,  one-sixth,  or  one-eighth  of  the 
body  of  the  type,  and  not  higher  than  spaces.  After  com- 
posing a  line,  before  moving  his  setting-rule,  he  takes  one  or 
more  of  these  and  places  it  before  the  line  ;  he  then  takes 
out  the  setting-rule,  and  proceeds  as  above  described.  Hav- 
ing thus  gone  on  until  a  considerable  quantity  of  matter  is 
composed,  the  compositor  next  makes  it  up  into  pages,  and 
then  into  sheets.  First,  taking  by  portions  as  many  lines  of 
his  matter  as  are  to  be  contained  in  a  page,  he  adds  thereto 
at  the  bottom  a  line  of  quadrats,  which  are  of  the  same  height 
as  spaces  but  much  larger,  varying  in  length  from  one  to  four 
m's,  and  places  at  the  top  the  folio  of  the  page  and  the  run- 
ning head  or  line  which  indicates  the  title  of  the  work  or  the 
subject  of  the  page  or  chapter,  and  then  adds  such  leads  or 
other  things  as  may  be  necessary  ;  taking  care  that  in  the  iBrst 
page  he  places  the  signature  (a  letter  of  the  alphabet  intended 
for  a  guide  to  the  binder,  because  by  keeping  this  always  out- 
side, and  the  second  signature  on  the  next  leaf,  he  cannot  fold 


68  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  sheet  wrong) .  He  next  ties  it  tightly  round  with  page- 
cord,  and  places  it  upon  a  piece  of  coarse  paper.  Having 
made  up  as  many  pages  as  the  sheet  consists  of,  viz.,  four  if 
folio,  eight  if  4to,  sixteen  if  8vo,  he  next  lays  them  down 
upon  the  imposing-table*  (a  large  plate  of  iron  screwed  on 
to  a  frame)  in  the  necessary  order.  This  is,  to  a  stranger,  a 
very  curious  arrangement ;  they  appear  to  him  to  be  placed 
at  random,  without  any  design  or  fixed  rule,  and  as  they  are 
necessarily  laid  down  in  two  divisions,  one  for  each  side  of  the 
sheet,  one  is  of  consequence  the  very  reverse  of  the  other. 
He  may  easily  instruct  himself,  however :  for  if  he  take  a 
sheet  of  paper  and  fold  it  into  any  required  size,  marking  the 
folios  with  a  pencil,  and  then  open  it  without  cutting,  he  will 
find  they  fall  in  curious  irregularity.  The  pages  are  laid  down 
on  the  table  reverse  of  the  order  they  have  on  the  paper ;  for 
it  must  be  remembered  that  every  type  and  every  page  is  like 
a  seal,  the  reverse  of  the  impression  it  leaves  ;  consequently, 
were  the  pages  laid  down  as  on  the  marked  paper,  viz.,  the 
first  page  on  the  right  hand,  it  would,  in  type,  be  at  the  ex- 
treme left,  and  so  on.  The  schemes  (figs.  3  and  4)  of  the 
laying  down  or  imposition  of  forms,  will  give  some  idea  of 
the  apparent  confusion  of  this  process. 

The  pages  being  correctly  laid  down  upon  the  imposing- 
table,  the  compositor  removes  the  papers  from  under  them, 
and  next  takes  in  both  hands  a  chase  (a  frame  of  iron  divided 
by  cross-bars  into  four  compartments,  the  inner  angles  of 
which  are  made  rectangular  with  much  care)  and  places  it 
over  them  ;  and  then  having  ascertained  the  size  of  the  paper 
to  be  used,  adjusts  pieces  of  wood  or  metal,  cdiiled  furniture, 
between  them.  Within  the  chase,  but  next  to  the  pages,  he 
places  other  pieces  of  wood  or  iron  called  side  B.nd  foot  sticks, 
which  are  rather  wider  at  one  end  than  the  other,  and  between 
these  and  the  chase  small  pieces  of  wood,  which  decrease  in 
width  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  side-stick,  and  which  are 
called  quoins.  He  now  takes  off  the  cords  from  the  pages, 
and,  as  he   removes   each   cord,  he  tightens  the   adjacent 

*  A  large  slab  of  marble  or  stone  is  used  for  this  purpose  ;  but  it  is  liable 
to  split,  and  to  have  its  smooth  surface  indented.  A  plate  of  iron  turned 
into  a  lathe  is  now  very  generally  substituted  in  England,  but  the  marble 
ie  commonly  in  use  in  America. 


PRINTING.  ] 


[  Plate  2. 


I'UOOF    I'll  ESS. 


Printing — Practical.  69 

quoins  that  the  letters  at  the  sides  of  the  pages  may  not  slip 
down.  When  all  the  pages  are  untied,  and  the  quoins 
pushed  up  with  his  finger  and  thumb,  he  planes  down  the 
pages  gently  with  a  planer  (a  piece  of  beech  perfectly  plane 
and  smooth  on  the  face,  about  9  inches  long,  4 J  inches  wide, 
and  2  inches  thick),  to  prevent  any  of  the  letters  from  stand- 
ing up.  With  a  shooting-stick  (which  formidably-named 
weapon  is  merely  a  piece  of  hard  wood,*  a  foot  in  length,  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  width,  and  half  an  inch  in  thickness)  and 
a  mallet  he  forces  the  quoins  toward  the  thicker  ends  of  the 
side  and  foot  sticks,  which  consequently  act  as  gradual  and 
most  powerful  wedges,  forcing  the  separate  pieces  of  type  to 
become  a  compact  and  almost  united  body,  so  that,  the  pages 
being  securely  locked  up  and  again  planed  down,  the  whole 
mass,  consisting  of  many  thousand  letters,  may  be  lifted  en- 
tire from  the  table.  This  united  mass  is  called  a  form; 
that  one  which  contains  the  first  page  being  called  the  outer 
form,  the  other  the  inner  (fig.  5). 

The  compositor  is  paid  by  the  number  of  thousands  of 
letters  he  composes,  which  is  thus  ascertained :  The  letter 
m,  being  on  a  shank  which  is  supposed  to  have  its  four  sides 
parallel  and  equal,  is  taken  as  the  standard ;  he  ascertains 
how  many  m's  the  page  is  in  length,  including  the  running 
head  and  the  white  line  at  the  bottom ;  that  is,  in  fact,  how 
many  lines  of  the  particular  type  used  there  would  be  in  a 
page  of  the  given  size,  supposing  it  were  all  solid  type  ;  next, 
how  many  m's  (laid  on  their  side)  it  is  in  width,  that  is, 
how  many  times  the  letter  m  would  be  repeated  in  a  line  of 
the  given  length  were  it  to  consist  of  nothing  but  m's  so  laid. 
This  latter  sum  is  then  doubled,  because  experience  shows 
that  the  average  width  of  the  letters  is  one-half  of  the  depth, 
or  one-half  of  that  of  the  letter  m.  The  length  of  the  page 
is  then  multiplied  by  the  product  of  this  doubled  width,  then 
by  the  number  of  pages  in  the  sheet,  and  the  result  will  give 
the  average  number  of  letters  in  the  sheet.  This  will  be 
much  better  understood  by  the  following  casting-up  of  a 
sheet  of  8vo  in  pica : 

•  Iron  or  gun-metal  is  now  generally  substituted,  as  being  more  durable. 


70  Five  Black  Arts. 

Number  of  m's  long 47 

*'  m's  wide,  24  X  2 48 

376 
188 


2256 
Number  of  pages  in  a  sheet  of  8vo 16 


13536 
2256 


36096 

The  compositor  therefore  is  paid  for  composing  36,000  let- 
ters ;  for  the  odd  figures  are  dropped,  unless  they  amount 
to  or  exceed  500,  when  they  are  paid  for  as  if  they  com- 
pleted another  1000.  If  the  sheet  be  of  solid  type,  of  the 
ordinary  size,  the  price  paid  in  London  is  sixpence  per  1000 
letters;  if  in  the  small  type  called  minion,  sixpence  far- 
thing; in  nonpareil,*  sevenpence  ;  in  pearl,  eightpence.  If 
the  work  be  composed  from  print  copy,  the  price  is  three 
farthings  per  1000  less  than  it  would  be  paid  if  the  copy 
were  manuscript.  If,  however,  the  type  be  leaded,  the 
price  is  a  farthing  per  1000  less  for  fonts  above  pearl.  If 
the  work  is  to  be  stereotyped,  and  high  spaces  are  used,  it 
is  subject  to  an  additional  charge  of  a  farthing  per  1000  ;  if 
low  spaces,  of  a  half-penny  per  1000.  Works  in  foreign  lan- 
guages, in  type  of  the  ordinary  size  and  character,  are  paid 
one  half-penny  per  1000  more,  and  three  farthings  per  1000 
more  in  the  smaller.  Greek,  with  leads  and  without  accents, 
eightpence  three  farthings ;  with  accents,  tenpence  farthing, 
is  eightpence  half-penny  per  1000  ;  without  leads  or  accents, 
Hebrew,  Arabic,  Syriac,  etc.,  are  paid  double. f     The  com- 

♦  This  is  nonpareil. 

t  In  1804,  after  a  protracted  litigation  before  the  Court  of  Session,  the 
journeymen  compositors  of  Edinburgh  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  sanction 
of  the  Court  for  an  advance  of  one  penny  per  ttiousand  letters,  or,  upou  an 
average,  about  one-fourth  on  the  prices  of  their  work.  The  grounds  upou 
which  the  Court  rested  this  decision  v/ere,  that  the  wages  were  much  too 
low  ;  that  they  had  remained  for  forty  years  unaltered,  whilst  the  price  of 
the  necessaries  of  life  had  very  much  increased  ;  and  although  it  was  proper 
to  avoid  a  rise  of  wages  which  might  lead  to  idleness,  yet  it  was  equally 
necessary  to  place  the  workmen  upon  a  respectable  footing,  so  as  to  enable 
them  to  do  their  work  properly,  and  also  to  encourage  them  in  cultivating 
and  acquiring  that  degree  of  literature  by  which  the  public  must  infallibly 
be  benefited  ;  and  that  the  fair  criterion  was,  to  make  the  wages  of  Edin- 
burgh bear  the  same  proportion  to  those  of  London  which  they  did  in  the 


Printing — Practical  71 

positor,  it  appears,  must  therefore  pick  up  72,000  letters  be- 
fore he  can  receive  an  ordinary  week's  wages,  must  make  up 
his  matter  into  pages  and  impose  them,  and,  moreover,  cor- 
rect all  the  blunders  mischance  or  carelessness  may  have 
occasioned,  with  great  expenditure  of  time  also  in  many 
other  particulars;  but,  as  is  hereafter  described,  he  must 
have  previously  placed  every  one  of  these  72,000  into  the 
appropriate  boxes  whence  he  has  withdrawn  them  in  compo- 
sition. Now  it  is  usually  reckoned  that  this  latter  operation, 
called  distributing,  occupies  one-fourth  of  a  compositor's 
time,  and  the  other  operations  another  fourth ;  he  has  there- 
fore only  one -half  of  his  time  for  composition  ;  consequently 
he  must  pick  up  letters  at  the  rate  of  144,000  per  week, 
24,000  per  day,  or  2000  per  hour.  His  rapidity  of  motion 
is  therefore  wonderful,  and  the  exertion  is  so  long  continued, 
that  the  business,  although  apparently  a  light  one,  is  in  fact 
extremely  laborious. 

The  number  of  thousands  of  letters  in  a  sheet  necessarily 
varies  with  the  size  of  the  type,  width  and  length  of  the  page, 
and  the  number  of  the  pages.  The  example  above  given  is 
the  casting-up  of  an  octavo  sheet  of  pica  solid,  the  page  be- 
ing of  moderate  size  ;  a  similar  sheet  of  brevier*  would  con- 
tain 81,000  letters,  and  the  cost  of  composing  it  would  be  21, 
Os.  Qd.  Single  tables,  forming  one  uninterrupted  mass  of  type, 
will  sometimes  contain  250,000  letters ;  and  the  labor  of  the 
compositor  being  very  great  in  getting  them  up,  he  is  paid 
double.  Consequently  the  cost  of  composing  such  a  table  in 
pearl  or  diamond  §  would  be  not  less  than  16^.  13s.  6c?.,  with- 
out extra  charges.     Yet  this  large  number  of  types,  by  the 

year  1785,  before  the  London  prices  were  raised.  That  a  court  of  law, 
whose  province  iti«  not  to  legislate,  but  to  apply  and  enforce  existing  stat- 
utes, should  have  entertained  a  question  regarding  the  price  of  labor,  for 
the  regulation  of  which  there  not  only  existed  no  law,  but  which  had  never 
been  deemed  a  fit  subject  for  legislative  interference,  appear*  to  be  a  very 
singular  incident  in  the  history  of  judicial  procedure.  The  prices  thus  fix- 
ed, however  (namely,  A^d.  per  1000  for  book-work,  with  an  additional  half- 
penny if  nonpareil,  and"  a  penny  if  pearl,  and  bid.  for  law-papers  and  jobs), 
being  regarded  as  not  unreasonable,  have  ever  since  been  adhered  to  by 
every  respectable  establishment  in  Edinburgh.  The  price  for  composition 
in  New  York  and  other  American  cities  averages  25  cents  per  thousand. 
Compositors  at  night  and  on  rule  and  figure  work  are  paid  extra. 
*  This  is  brevier. 

{TliiU 


72  Five  Black  Arts. 

power  of  the  wedge-formed  side  and  foot  sticks  and  quoins, 
is  compressed  into  so  solid  a  mass  that  it  can  be  moved 
without  much  danger  of  disruption. 

The  sheet  being  now  imposed,  an  impression  is  taken 
called  a  proof,  which  is  carried  down  to  the  reader,  who 
having  folded  the  proof  in  the  necessary  manner,  first  looks 
over  the  signatures,  next  ascertains  whether  the  sheet  com- 
mences with  the  right  signature  and  folio,  and  then  sees  that 
the  folios  follow  in  order.  He  now  looks  over  the  runnins; 
heads,  inspects  the  proof  to  see  that  it  has  been  imposed  in 
the  proper  furniture,  that  the  chapters  are  numbered  rightly, 
and  that  the  directions  given  have  been  correctly  attended 
to,  marking  whatever  he  finds  wrong.  Having  carefully 
done  this,  he  places  the  proof  before  him,  with  the  copy  at 
his  left  hand,  and  proceeds  to  read  the  proof  over  with  the 
greatest  care,  referring  occasionally  to  the  copy  when  neces- 
sary, correcting  the  capitals  or  italics,  or  any  other  peculiar- 
ities, noting  continually  whether  every  portion  of  the  com- 
position has  been  executed  in  a  workmanlike  manner ;  and 
having  fully  satisfied  himself  upon  these  and  all  technical 
points,  he  calls  his  reading  boy,  who,  taking  the  copy,  reads 
in  a  clear  voice,  but  with  great  rapidity  and  often  without 
the  least  attention  to  sound,  sense,  pauses,  or  cadences,  the 
precise  words  of  the  most  crabbed  or  intricate  copy,  insert- 
ing, without  pause  or  embarrassment,  every  interlineation, 
note,  or  side-note.  The  gabble  of  these  boys  in  the  reading- 
room,  where  there  are  three  or  four  reading,  is  most  amusing, 
a  stranger  hearing  the  utmost  confusion  of  tongues,  uncon- 
nected sentences,  and  most  monotonous  tones.  The  readers 
plodding  at  their  several  tasks  with  the  most  iron  composure, 
are  not  in  the  least  disturbed  by  the  Babel  around  them,  but 
follow  carefully  every  word,  marking  every  error,  or  pausing 
to  assist  in  deciphering  every  unknown  or  foreign  word. 
This  first  reading  is  strictly  confined  to  making  the  proof  an 
exact  copy  of  the  manuscript,  and  ascertaining  the  accuracy 
of  the  composition ;  consequently  first  readers  are  generally 
intelligent  and  well-educated  compositors,  whose  practical 
knowledge  enables  them  to  detect  the  most  trivial  technical 
errors.  Having  thus  a  second  time  perused  the  proof,  and 
carefully  marked  upon  the  copy  the  commencement,  signa- 
ture, and  folio  of  the  succeeding  sheet,  he  sends  it  by  his 


PRINTING.  ] 


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Printing — Practical.  73 

reading-boy  to  the  composing-room  to  be  corrected  by  the 
workmen  who  have  taken  share  in  the  composition.  These 
immediately  divide  the  proof  amongst  them,  and  each,  taking 
that  portion  of  it  which  contains  the  matter  he  had  composed, 
and  going  to  his  cases,  gathers  the  letters  marked  as  correc- 
tions in  the  margin,  together  with  a  quantity  of  spaces  of  all 
sizes,  and  returns  to  the  forms,  which  in  the  meanwhile  one 
of  them  has  laid  up  on  the  imposing-table  and  unlocked. 
He  then  with  a  bodkin  lifts  up  each  Une  in  which  a  correc- 
tion is  required,  draws  out  the  wrong  letter  and  inserts  the 
right  one,  adjusting  the  spaces  in  such  a  way  as  to  compen- 
sate for  the  increased  or  diminished  size  of  the  letter  substi- 
tuted, overrunning  carefully  several  lines  should  any  word 
have  been  added  or  struck  out,  so  that  the  spacing  may  be 
uniform,  and  the  corrected  matter  exhibit  no  indication  of 
any  alteration  having  been  made.  This  is  an  operation  re- 
quiring much  practice  and  skill ;  and  here  is  shown  the  value 
of  attention  in  the  preliminary  operations.  Should  the  types 
have  been  carelessly  laid  or  inaccurately  distributed,  should 
the  workman  have  been  negligent  in  composition,  capitaling, 
or  spacing,  he  will  consume  as  much  time  in  amending  his 
errors  as  in  composing  his  matter,  to  the  great  detriment  of 
his  work,  the  injury  and  inconvenience  of  his  employer  and 
his  companions,  and  great  delay  in  every  department  of  the 
printing-office.  When  every  compositor  has  corrected  his 
matter,  that  one  whose  matter  is  last  in  the  sheet  locks  it  up, 
and  another  proof  is  pulled,  which,  with  the  original  proof, 
is  taken  to  the  same  first  reader,  who  compares  the  one  with 
the  other,  and  ascertains  that  his  marks  have  been  carefully 
attended  to,  in  default  of  which,  he  again  sends  it  up  to  be 
corrected ;  but  should  he  find  his  revision  satisfactory,  he 
sends  the  second  proof  with  the  copy  to  the  second  reader,  by 
whom  it  undergoes  the  same  careful  inspection ;  but  this 
time,  most  technical  inaccuracies  having  been  rectified,  the 
reader  observes  whether  the  author's  language  be  good  and 
intelligible  ;  if  not,  he  makes  such  queries  on  the  margin  as 
his  experience  may  suggest ;  he  sends  it  up  to  the  composi- 
tor, where  it  again  undergoes  correction,  and  a  proof  being 
very  carefully  pulled,  it  is  sent  down  to  the  same  reader, 
who  revises  his  marks  and  transfers  the  queries.  The  proof 
is  then  sent,  generally  with  the  copy,  to  the  author  for  his 


74  Five  Black  Arts. 

perusal,  who,  having  made  such  alterations  as  he  thinks 
necessary,  sends  it  back  to  the  printing-office  for  correction. 
With  the  proper  attention  to  these  marks,  the  printer's  re- 
sponsibility as  to  correctness  ceases,  and  the  sheet  is  now 
ready  for  press.  Such  at  least  is  the  process  of  proof- 
reading which  ought  to  be  adopted  ;  but  now,  from  the  speed 
with  which  works  are  hurried  through  the  press,  the  proofs 
are  frequently  sent  out  with  only  one  reading,  the  careful 
press-reading  being  reserved  until  the  author's  revise  is  re- 
turned. 

It  need  scarcely  be  remarked  that  "  correctness  of  the 
press  "  is  a  very  material  feature  in  every  work,  and  more 
especially  in  those  of  a  scientific  nature.  When  the  atten- 
tion and  the  mind  are  devoted  to  the  train  of  some  close 
argument  or  passage  of  surprising  beauty,  it  is  surprising 
how  easily  an  error  of  the  press,  even  although  it  may  not 
injure  the  sense,  and  may  be  as  evident ''  as  the  sun  at  noon," 
will  destroy  the  charm,  and  break  the  "  thread  of  the  dis- 
course ;"  and  even  in  works  of  ordinary  reading  they  are 
exceedingly  offensive.  Many  curious  anecdotes  are  related 
of  the  methods  which  the  earlier  printers  adopted  to  attain 
correctness.  It  was  the  glory  of  the  early  literati  to  take 
charge  of  the  accuracy  of  new  works ;  and,  in  return,  the 
value  and  sale  of  each  edition  varied  with  the  skill  and  repu- 
tation of  the  corrector.  Of  these,  Erasmus  is  an  illustrious 
example.  Many  of  the  first  printers  were  led  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  art  by  their  love  of  learning,  and  their  anxiety  to 
promote  it  by  the  production  of  classic  authors.  Hence 
several  are  better  known  in  the  world  of  learning  than  in 
the  circle  of  bibliographers ;  as  the  editors  and  correctors  of 
valuable  works,  than  as  the  careful  or  beautiful  printers  of 
them.  Aldus,  it  is  true,  has  so  admirably  succeeded  in  both 
characters,  that  he  has  fully  established  his  double  fame  ;  but 
whether  he  was  most  valued  himself  upon  his  learning  or  his 
skill  may  be  doubted.  It  would  appear  from  his  letters  that 
he  considered  it  as  his  chiefest  duty  to  correct  every  sheet 
that  passed  through  his  press.  In  all  his  bustle  in  preparing 
every  material  in  uss  in  his  art,  in  all  his  occupations  public 
and  private,  this  important  duty  was  never  neglected.  He 
tells  us  "  that  he  has  hardly  time  to  inspect,  much  less  to 
correct,  the  sheets  which  are  executed  in  his  office ;  that  his 


PRINTING.  ] 


[PlATE  6. 


PRINTING.  ] 


[  PlATB   6. 


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Printing — Practical.  75 

days  and  his  nights  are  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  fit 
materials  ;  and  that  he  can  scarcely  take  food  or  strengthen 
his  stomach,  owing  to  the  multiplicity  and  pressure  of  busi- 
ness ;  meanwhile,"  adds  he,  "  with  both  hands  occupied,  and 
surrounded  by  pressmen  who  are  clamorous  for  work,  there 
is  scarely  time  even  to  blow  one's  nose  :"  nor  did  his  son  or 
grandson  depart  from  his  ways,  but  did  themselves  insure 
the  correctness  of  their  works,  even  when  the  latter  had 
risen  to  wealth  and  eminence,  and  enjoyed  the  laborious  dig- 
nity of  a  professor's  chair.  The  beautiful  Greek  works  of 
the  Stephani  are  especially  valued  for  their  correctness. 
Stephens  corrected  his  own  press  with  intense  labor  and 
minuteness,  and  is  reported  to  have  adopted  a  singular  plan 
for  obtaining  perfect  similarity  to  the  copy,  by  employing 
females  who  had  not  the  slightest  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
characters  or  language  to  compare  every  letter  of  the  proof 
with  the  manuscript ;  a  labor  so  intense  as  to  be  almost  in- 
credible. He  is  moreover  said  to  have  hung  up  proofs  on 
the  doors  of  his  printing-office,  and  to  have  amply  rewarded 
any  who  could  detect  inaccuracies  therein.  Coverdale,  it 
will  be  recollected,  corrected  the  first  English  Bible  and 
Testament,  and  received  a  bishopric  as  his  reward.  Foulis, 
the  celebrated  printer  at  Glasgow,  adopted  the  same  plan 
to  insure  the  accuracy  of  his  edition  of  Horace,  which  is 
styled  immaculate  ;  in  which,  however,  one  error  escaped  de- 
tection, the  ode  commencing  Scriberis  Vario,  being  printed, 
as  originally  issued,  Scribfris  Vario. 

The  experience  of  every  printer  will  furnish  a  host  of 
laughable  errors ;  and  indeed  these  defects  have  been  deem- 
ed of  such  importance  as  to  deserve  preservation.  (D'ls- 
raeli's  Curiosities  of  Literature.')  The  omission  of  the  word 
not  from  the  seventh  commandment,  in  an  edition  of  the  Bi- 
ble printed  by  the  Stationers'  Company,  is  well  known ;  and 
the  company  richly  deserve  the  severe  fine  they  incurred  for 
spreading  the  immoral  command,  "  Thou  shalt  commit  adul- 
tery." The  Bible  so  misprinted  has  received  the  name  of 
the  "  Adultery  Bible;"  and  a  copy  is  preserved  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  the  edition  having  been  carefully  suppressed. 
There  is  another  Bible  known  as  the  "  Vinegar  Bible,"  from 
a  misprint  in  the  20th  chapter  of  St.  Luke,  where  "  Parable 
of  the  Vinegar  "  is  printed  for  "  Parable  of  the  Vineyard  ;" 


76  Five  Black  Arts. 

this  proceeded  from  the  Clarendon  press.  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.  a  very  curious  traffic  in  Bibles,  etc.,  arose  ;  they 
were  printed  by  any  one  who  chose,  and  imported  in  vast 
numbers  from  abroad.  It  will  readily  be  imagined  that  these 
were  made  for  sale,  not  for  use,  and  that  they  abounded  with 
egregious  errors :  but,  what  is  worse  than  this,  they  were  full 
of  mistranslations  and  interpolations,  and  the  omissions  were 
fearful.  All  these  were  done  as  much  by  design  as  by  acci- 
dent, the  Romanists  and  sectaries  taking  the  opportunity  of 
advancing  their  own  tenets  by  interpolating  and  altering 
texts  to  suit  their  views.  These  monstrous  anomalies  pro- 
duced, however,  some  good  ;  they  occasioned  the  necessity  of 
the  authorized  version  now  in  use,  and  printed  under  such 
authority  as  insures  perfect  fidelity,  whilst  there  is  sufficient 
competition  to  make  it  impossible  that  the  Word  of  God  can 
ever  become  a  sealed  book  to  the  humblest  and  poorest  Chris- 
tian. Some  of  the  blunders  in  these  editions  are  sufficiently 
absurd  to  overcome  the  repugnance  which  must  naturally  be 
felt  at  such  license.  Thus,  in  Luke  xxi.  28,  condemnation 
has  been  misprinted  for  redemption.  In  Field's  Bible  of 
1653,  called  the  Pearl  Bible,  Rom.  vi.  13,  we  find  "  Neither 
yield  ye  your  members  as  instruments  of  righteousness  unto 
sin,"  instead  of  unrighteousness ;  and  1  Cor.  vi.  9,  "  Know 
ye  not  that  the  unrighteous  shall  inherit  the  kingdom  of 
God  ?"  for  shall  not  inherit.  It  is  said  that  these  corrup- 
tions are  in  a  great  measure  owing  to  Field's  cupidity,  and 
that  he  received  a  bribe  of  1600^.  from  the  Independents  to 
alter  the  text  in  Acts  vi.  3,  to  sanction  the  right  of  the  peo- 
ple to  appoint  their  own  pastors,  "  Wherefore,  brethren,  look 
ye  out  among  you  seven  men  of  honest  report,  full  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  wisdom,  whom  ye  may  appoint  over  this 
business,"  instead  of  we.  This  Bible  is  notorious,  and, 
strange  to  say,  valued,  for  its  gross  incorrectness.  It  is  as- 
serted that  no  less  than  six  thousand  errors  of  greater  or  less 
magnitude  have  been  noted  in  it.  But  the  most  extraordi- 
nary example  of  carelessness  is  presented  by  the  Vulgate, 
the  printing  of  which  was  sedulously  superintended  by  no 
less  an  authority  than  Sextus  V.,  a  curious  example  of  the 
infallibility  of  the  Pope.  To  the  astonishment  of  the  world, 
it  swarmed  with  errors  ;  and  a  whimsical  attempt  was  made 
to  remedy  the  defects  by  pasting  printed  slips  of  paper  over 


PRINTING.  ] 


[  PlATB  7. 


PRINTING.  ] 


[Plate  8. 


Printing — Practical.  77 

the  erroneous  passages.  As  this,  however,  was  exceedingly 
laughable,  the  papal  authority  was  exerted  to  the  utmost  to 
call  in  the  edition,  and  with  such  effect  that  it  soon  became 
very  scarce,  and  a  copy  of  it  has  produced  the  sum  of  sixty 
guineas.  To  add  to  the  absurdity,  the  volume  contains  a 
bull  from  the  Pope  anathematizing  and  excommunicating  all 
printers  who,  in  printing  it,  should  make  any  alteration  in 
the  text.  The  monkish  editor  of  The  Anatomy  of  the  Mass, 
printed  in  1561,  a  work  consisting  of  172  pages  of  text  and 
fifteen  pages  of  errata,  very  amusingly  accounts  for  these 
mistakes  by  attributing  them  to  the  artifice  of  satan,  who 
caused  the  printers  to  commit  such  numerous  blunders ;  but 
he  does  not  inform  us  whether  it  was  really  the  archangel 
fallen,  or  only  his  minor  satelHte,  the  printer's  devil.  The 
editor  of  an  Ethiopic  version  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  inno- 
cently confesses,  in  palliation  of  his  errors,  *'  that  they  who 
printed  the  work  could  not  read,  and  we  could  not  print : 
thev  helped  us  and  we  helped  them,  as  the  blind  helps  the 
blind." 

The  sheet  being  printed  off  in  the  way  hereafter  to  be  de- 
scribed, and  the  forms  returned  by  the  pressmen  to  the  com- 
posing-room, and  very  carefully  washed  with  lye,  and  rinsed 
with  water,  the  compositor  lays  them  up  on  a  letter-board  in 
the  sink,  and  there  unlocks  them  ;  he  then  passes  one  hand 
backward  and  forward  over  the  pages  so  as  effectually  to 
loosen  the  type,  and  at  the  same  time  with  the  other  pours 
on  water,  till,  the  lye  and  ink  being  washed  away,  it  runs  off 
clear.  The  forms  are  then  allowed  to  drain,  and  carried  to 
the  bulks  at  the  end  of  the  frames.  Each  compositor  em- 
ployed on  the  work  then  takes  a  share  of  the  letter,  and, 
wetting  the  face  of  it  plentifully  with  a  sponge,  which  causes 
the  types  to  adhere  sufficiently  to  prevent  accidents,  yet  not 
so  much  as  to  retard  the  workman,  takes  up  a  portion  on  his 
setting-rule,  with  the  nick  upward,  and  the  face  turned 
toward  him  ;  he  then  takes  between  his  fingers  and  thumb  a 
few  letters,  gives  a  rapid  glance  at  the  face  to  see  what  let- 
ters they  are,  and  then,  passing  his  hand  rapidly  over  the 
cases,  drops  each  into  its  appropriate  box.  In  this  operation 
the  greatest  attention  is  necessary,  for  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  every  letter  dropped  into  a  wrong  box  in  dis- 
tributing is  sure  to  cause  an  error  in  composing ;  for  the 


78  Five  Black  Arts. 

workman,  as  before  stated,  never  looks  at  the  letter  he  takes 
up,  relying  upon  the  correctness  of  the  distribution.  Com- 
positors, therefore,  should  be  especially  careful,  when  learn- 
ing their  business,  not  to  sacrifice  accuracy  to  swiftness ;  for 
in  this  instance  most  especially  is  it  found  that  too  much  haste 
is  little  speed.  If  the  rapidity  of  motion  in  composition 
strikes  the  stranger  with  wonder,  what  must  that  of  distribu- 
tion occasion  ?  Most  compositors  distribute  four  times  as 
rapidly  as  they  compose  ;  if,  therefore,  he  pick  upt  wo  thou- 
sand letters  in  an  hour,  he  would  distribute  eight  or  ten  thou- 
sand, or  about  three  per  second.  His  letter  being  properly 
distributed,  he  again  proceeds  to  compose  in  the  manner  be- 
fore described,  until  the  work  is  finished.  The  number  of 
times  the  types  are  returned  to  their  cases  must  depend  upon 
the  size  of  the  font.  A  thousand  pounds'  weight  of  types 
would  get  up  five  or  six  sheets ;  and  therefore,  in  an  ordi- 
nary octavo  volume,  the  types  would  be  returned  five  or  six 
times. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute  machinery 
for  the  manual  labor  of  the  compositors.  The  machines  of 
Messrs.  Young  and  Delcambre  (1842),  and  of  Major  Rosen- 
borg, deserve  mention  for  their  great  ingenuity  ;  and  Major 
Beniowski  has  attempted  a  process  by  which,  by  the  use  of  a 
new  description  of  type,  logotypes,  cases,  and  machinery,  a 
great  saving  of  time  and  money  may  be  effected.  But  there 
are  requirements  in  the  process  of  composing  which  are  in- 
dependent of  mechanism,  and  which  have  hitherto  rendered 
these  inventions  practically  useless. 

THE  PRINTING-PRESS. 

The  press  is  the  machine  whereby  impressions  are  obtained 
of  the  type,  when  set  up  by  the  compositor  as  above  described. 
On  the  skill  and  care  of  the  pressman  depends  the  beauty  of 
the  work.  If  the  press-work  be  not  good,  all  the  labor  of  the 
compositor  is  thrown  away ;  his  work  makes  no  respectable 
appearance,  and  the  master  gets  no  credit. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  very  little  alteration 
had  been  made  in  the  printing-press  from  the  time  of  the  first 
printers  to  that  of  Blaew  of  Amsterdam,  about  1620. 
Blaew's  improvements,  although  very  great,  only  consisted  in 
alterations  in  the  details,  and  not  in  the  principle.     These 


PRINTING.  ] 


[  Plate  9. 


1  a          8 

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11 

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PRINTING.  ] 


[Plate  10. 


& "-■ 

1     ■ 

00 

s 

n 

^ 

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Printing — Practical.  79 

presses  have  in  their  turn  been  superseded  by  those  of  Lord 
Stanhope  ;  and  the  latter  has  found  successful  competitors  in 
the  Columbian,  Albion,  and  others  of  more  modern  inven- 
tion. Very  few  of  Blaew's  construction  are  now  in  exist- 
ence, save  in  old  offices  in  England,  where  they  are  used  as 
proof-presses,  or  kept  merely  as  curiosities.  As  a  descrip- 
tion of  these  by-gone  pieces  of  mechanism  would  be  of  little 
utility,  the  Stanhope  press,  by  which  they  have  been  super- 
seded, has  been  selected  for  illustration,  for  which  it  is  best 
adapted,  from  the  simplicity  of  its  construction  and  its  being 
easily  explained.  The  novelty  of  his  lordship's  invention 
consists  in  an  improved  application  of  the  power  to  the  spin- 
dle and  screw,  whereby  it  is  greatly  increased.  Upon  refer- 
ence to  fig.  6,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  press  possesses  great 
strength  and  compactness.  The  heavy  mass  of  iron  AA, 
somewhat  resembling  a  vase  in  outline,  is  called  the  staple. 
It  is  united  at  the  top  and  bottom,  but  the  neck  and  body  are 
open.  The  upper  part  is  called  the  nut  B,  and  answers  the 
purpose  of  the  head  in  the  old  press ;  it  is  in  fact  a  box  with 
a  female  screw,  in  which  the  screw  of  the  spindle  C  works ; 
the  lower  portion  of  the  open  part,  described  as  the  neck,  is 
occupied  with  a  piston  and  cup  D,  D,  in  and  on  which  the  toe 
of  the  spindle  works.  On  the  nearer  side  of  the  staple  is  a 
vertical  pillar  or  arbor  A  (fig.  7),  the  lower  end  of  which  is 
inserted  into  the  staple  at  the  top  of  the  shoulder  ;  the  upper 
end  passes  through  a  top-plate  B,  which  being  screwed  on  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  staple,  holds  it  firmly.  The  extreme 
upper  end  of  the  arbor  (which  is  hexagonal)  receives  a  head 
C,  which  is  in  fact  a  lever  of  some  inches  in  length ;  this 
head  is  connected  by  a  coupling-bar  E  to  a  similar  lever  or 
head  D,  into  which  the  upper  end  of  the  spindle  is  inserted. 
The  bar  or  lever  F,  by  which  the  power  is  applied  by  the 
workman,  is  inserted  into  the  arbor,  and  not  into  the  spindle, 
by  which  ingenious  contrivance — 1st,  the  lever  is  in  length 
the  whole  width  of  the  press,  instead  of  half,  as  in  Blaew's 
press,  and  is,  moreover,  in  a  much  better  situation  for  the 
application  of  the  pressman's  strength  ;  2d,  there  is  the  ad- 
ditional lever  of  the  arbor-head ;  35,  the  additional  lever  of 
the  spindle-head  ;  and,  lastly/,  the  screw  itself  may  be  so  en- 
larged  in  diameter  as  greatly  to  increase  its  power.  The 
H  platen  L  is  screwed  on  to  the  under  surface  of  the  spindle ; 

L 


80  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  table  M  has  slides  underneath,  which  move  in  the  riha 
N,  N,  instead  of  upon  them,  as  in  the  old  presses,  and  is  run 
in  and  out  by  means  of  girths  affixed  to  each  end,  and  passing 
round  a  drum  or  wheel  0.  As  the  platen  is  of  considerable 
weight,  the  workman  would  have  to  exert  much  strength  in 
raising  it  from  the  form  after  the  impression  has  been  given, 
were  not  a  balance-weight  P  suspended  upon  a  lever  and 
hook  at  the  back  of  the  press,  which  counterbalances  the 
weight  of  the  platen,  raises  it  from  the  form,  and  brings  the 
bar-handle  back  again,  ready  for  another  pull.  These  are 
the  principal  parts  of  the  machinery  whereby  the  impression 
is  given,  and  are  sufficient  to  give  the  general  reader,  with 
the  aid  of  fig.  7,  an  idea  of  the  mechanism  of  the  Stanhope 
press.  For  the  printer  there  are  yet  other  appliances.  At 
the  right-hand  end  of  the  table  is  an  iron  frame  Q,  moving 
freely  upon  pivots,  so  as  to  fall  upon  the  table,  or  rise  until 
stopped  by  what  is  called  the  galloios  R  ;  this  is  covered  with 
parchment  very  tightly  stretched,  and  is  then  called  the  tym- 
pan  ;  upon  the  tympan  blankets  are  placed,  which  are  cov- 
ered by  an  inner  tympan,  and  fastened  by  hooks  ;  the  whole 
forming  a  solid  yet  elastic  and  yielding  surface,  admirably 
fitted  for  impressing  the  paper  upon  the  type  (for  this  is  its 
use),  inasmuch  as  the  surface  of  the  parchment  is  soft  and 
without  grain,  and  readily  receives  the  impression  of  the 
type,  while  the  blankets  give  freely  to  every  projection,  with- 
out retaining  any  indentation.  To  protect  those  portions  of 
the  paper  which  are  not  intended  to  be  colored  from  ink  or 
soil,  there  is  at  the  upper  end  of  the  tympan  another  iron 
frame,  of  much  lighter  make,  and  also  moving  upon  pivots, 
so  as  to  fall  upon  the  face  of  the  tympan.  This  is  covered 
with  a  sheet  of  coarse  paper,  and  after  an  impression  has 
been  taken  upon  it,  the  exact  size  and  form  of  the  pages  are 
carefully  cut  out  therefrom,  the  parts  left  being  an  excellent 
protection  of  the  paper  under  them.  This  is  called  the 
frisket. 

Such  is  the  ordinary  Stanhope  press.  A  notice  of  the 
principle  of  many  other  excellent  presses  which  have  been 
since  invented,  and  very  extensively  introduced,  will  be  found 
in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  treatise.  The  manner  of  work- 
ing is  the  same  in  all. 

On  the   left  front  of  the  press  stands  the   inking-table. 


PRINTING.  ] 


[  Plate  11. 


^ij  5. 


Printing — Practical.  81 

This  is  made  of  iron,  about  four  feet  high,  and  three  feet 
four  inches  wide  ;  at  the  back  is  a  solid  iron  cylinder,  turned 
perfectly  true,  against  which  a  thin  steel  straight-edge  is 
made  to  press  by  means  of  levers  and  weights,  thus  forming 
a  trough  for  the  ink ;  of  which,  when  the  cylinder  is  turned 
round,  it  becomes  covered  with  a  thin  film,  its  thickness 
being  regulated  by  adjusting  the  weights  on  the  levers. 
Against  this  iron  cylinder  the  inking-roller  (which  will  be 
hereafter  described)  is  dabbed,  and  being  rolled  backward 
and  forward  on  the  table,  the  ink  is  evenly  distributed  over 
its  surface. 

It  must  be  fully  understood  that  printers'  ink  is  a  very  dif- 
ferent composition  from  that  used  for  writing.  It  is  of  such 
consistency  that  if  a  small  portion  be  taken  up  between  the 
finger  and  thumb,  when  they  are  opened  it  will  produce  a 
thread  of  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  Of  all  the 
materials  used  in  printing  this  is  the  most  important,  and 
the  most  opposite  qualities  are  required  in  it.  It  must  be  of 
excellent  color.  Formerly  excellence  of  color  was  deemed 
to  consist  in  an  exceeding  dark  hue,  not  exactly  black,  but 
black  enriched  with  a  hue  of  the  darkest  blue  or  purple. 
This  gave  indescribable  effect  to  the  works  for  which  it  was 
used,  a  richness  and  intensity  which  it  is  impossible  to  describe, 
but  of  which  the  works  of  Baskerville  and  Bulmer,  especially 
the  Milton  of  the  latter,  afford  the  best  specimens.  Now 
we  hold  perfection  to  consist  in  the  intensest  black,  and  all 
the  resources  of  chemistay  and  the  arts  have  been  sought  to 
attain  this  end.  It  must  stand  for  ever ;  but  here  we  have 
miserably  failed.  Compare  the  productions  of  the  old  print- 
ers with  those  printed  twenty  years  back.  What  a  difier- 
ence !  The  works  of  the  Aldi  and  Elzevirs,  of  Plantinus, 
Caxton,  Pynson,and  Grafton,  preserve  their  color  as  intense 
as  on  the  day  they  were  printed  ;  there  is  no  yellowness  or 
brownness,  no  foxiness  ;  whilst  the  books  printed  from  1810 
to  1820  are  wretchedly  discolored.  "Where  fine  printing, 
however,  has  been  required  and  paid  for  ^  the  modern  ink  is 
no  whit  inferior  to  the  ancient.  Witness  the  works  of  Bul- 
mer, Macklin,  Ritchie,  Bowyer,  Baskerville,  and  others ;  but 
certain  it  is  that  the  ink  in  general  use  twenty  years  ago 
was  of  very  inferior  quality.  It  must  be  perfectly  mixed, 
and  ground  until  it  is  absolutely  impalpable,  otherwise  it  will 
6 


82  Five  Black  Arts. 

speedily  clog  the  types  and  inking  apparatus  ;  it  must  adhere 
to  the  paper,  and  not  to  the  type,  or  it  will  tear  off  the  face 
of  the  former,  and  clog  up  the  latter  ;  it  must  be  sufficiently 
thick ;  it  must  keep  perfectly  undried  when  in  large  masses, 
and  dry  very  quickly  when  it  is  transferred  to  the  paper. 
Few  printers  of  the  present  day  make  their  own  ink,  although 
some  add  ingredients  which  they  believe  to  improve  the 
color  or  quality.  Ink-making  is  a  distinct  business  ;  and  by 
the  aid  of  machinery,  capital,  and  exclusive  attention  to  the 
manufacture,  the  ink  now  supplied  is  admirable  in  the  quali- 
ties of  being  thoroughly  mixed  and  ground,  drying,  black- 
ness, etc.;  but  whether  it  will  stand  the  test  of  time,  time 
alone  can  show.  It  is  an  expensive  article,  the  commonest 
book-ink  being  one  shilling  and  sixpence  per  pound,*  whilst 
the  usual  qualities  are  two  shillings  and  sixpence,  three  shil- 
lings, and  four  shillings  per  pound ;  those  used  for  superior 
work  are  five  shillings  or  six  shillings  ;  and  those  for  cuts  as 
high  as  ten  shillings — though  it  is  questionable  whether,  at 
the  latter  price,  the  consumer  is  not  paying  for  a  mere 
name. 

Every  manufacturer  has  of  course  his  own  secrets  both 
of  ingredients  and  process.  The  universal  ingredient  is  of 
the  finest  possible  lamp-black ;  the  great  secret  probably  con- 
sists in  the  manner  in  which,  and  the  material  from  which, 
this  is  made.  There  are  vast  buildings  appropriated  to  the 
sole  purpose  of  burning  oil,  naphtha,  spirits,  coal-gas,  etc., 
to  produce  this  black,  which  is  collected  from  the  sides,  ceil- 
ings, etc.,  of  the  buildings  ;  it  is  brought  from  Germany  and 
many  other  countries ;  and  no  expense  is  spared  to  get  the 
most  superior  quality.  The  next  most  important  article  is 
nut  or  linseed  oil  boiled  and  burnt  into  a  varnish ;  then  oil 
of  turpentine,  etc.  The  following  receipts  have  been  given. 
The  first  is  the  method  used  by  Baskerville  and  Bulmer,  and 
nothing  can  be  better  than  the  results : 

1.  Fine  old  linseed  oil  boiled  to  a  thick  varnish,  and  cooled 
in  small  quantities,  three  gallons ;  a  small  quantity  of  black 
or  amber  rosin  dissolved  therein ;  the  mixture  then  stands 
for  some  months,  that  all  impurities  may  be  deposited  ;  after 
which  it  is  mixed  with  the  finest  lamp-black,  and  carefully 
ground  for  use. 

*  In  England.    In  America,  the  ordinary  price  is  thirty  cents  per  pound. 


Printing — Practical.  83 

2.  One  hundred  pounds  of  nut  or  linseed  oil  are  reduced 
bj  boiling  and  burning  one-tenth  or  one-eighth  of  its  bulk, 
and  to  the  thickness  of  a  syrup,  two  pounds  of  coarse  bread 
and  several  onions  being  thrown  in  to  purify  it  from  grease. 
Thirty  or  thirty-five  pounds  of  turpentine  are  boiled  apart, 
until,  on  cooling  it  on  paper,  it  breaks  clean,  without  pulver- 
izing. The  former  is  poured  nearly  cold  into  the  latter, 
and  well  mixed.  The  compound  is  then  boiled  again.  Lamp- 
black is  next  thoroughly  mixed  with  it,  in  quantity  according 
to  the  ink  required,  and  being  well  ground,  the  ink  is  then 
ready  for  use.  Some  add  indigo,  some  Prussian  blue,  which 
considerably  improves  the  color ;  but  these  inks  are  so  diffi- 
cult to  w^ork,  and  so  clog  up  the  type,  that  the  iwprovement 
is  better  let  alone.  The  turpentine  is  added  to  give  greater 
varnish,  and  improve  the  drying  quality ;  but  if  the  oil  be 
old  and  fine,  the  quantity  required  is  proportionally  less. 

3.  Mr.  Savage,  an  admirable  artist,  denies  that  any  ink 
can  be  depended  on  of  the  varnish  of  which  oil  is  the  basis ; 
he  therefore  gives  the  following  receipt :  Balsam  capivi,  9  oz.; 
best  lamp-black,  3  oz.;  Prussian  blue,  IJ  oz.;  Indian  red, 
}  oz.;  turpentine  soap  dried,  3  oz.  This  ink  is  of  beautiful 
color,  but  appears  to  work  foul. 

At  the  right  front  of  the  press  stand  the  hank  and  horse. 
The  bank  is  a  deal  table  of  some  size ;  the  horse  is  an  in- 
clined plane  which  stands  upon  the  bank ;  upon  it  is  laid  the 
white  paper  properly  damped  for  working;  and  as  each 
sheet  is  worked,  it  is  taken  off  the  tympan  and  laid  on  the 
bank.  There  are  two  pressmen  to  each  press,  one  of  whom 
attends  to  the  inking  only,  to  ascertain  the  excellence  of 
which,  whenever  he  has  a  moment  to  spare,  he  turns  to  the 
worked  sheets  upon  the  bank,  glancing  his  eye  rapidly  over 
each,  to  see  that  every  part  is  of  its  proper  color,  and  that 
no  picks  or  other  imperfections  mar  the  work ;  the  other 
attends  only  to  the  press,  and  gives  the  impression.  These 
men  are  paid  by  every  two  hundred  and  fifty  impressions, 
called  a  token.  Thus,  if  the  number  be  five  hundred,  and 
the  price  4j6?.  per  token,  each  man  receives  ^d,  for  the  five 
hundred  impressions  of  each  form,  and  the  cost  therefore  is, 


I 


Inner  form,  two  men,  two  token,  at  ^d Is.  6c?. 

Outer  form,         do  do  do     Is.  6d. 

3s.  Qd. 


84  Five  Black  Arts. 

The  price  varies  with  the  size  of  the  type  and  the  form ; 
with  the  quality  of  the  paper  and  the  ink ;  with  the  number, 
and  the  care  required.  Common  work  used  to  be  paid  for 
at  4  J  J.,  good  at  6d.,  superior  at  Id.,  the  very  best  at  8c?., 
9c?.,  or  even  Is.  per  token.*  But  now  the  price  is  matter 
of  agreement  between  the  master  and  pressmen. 

One  of  the  pressmen,  having  received  the  forms  after  the 
final  correction,  lays  the  inner  form,  or  that  one  which  con- 
tains the  second  signature,  upon  the  table  of  the  press,  and 
secures  it  in  the  center  by  quoins ;  the  other  in  the  mean- 
while pastes  a  stout  sheet  of  paper  upon  the  frisket  frame, 
and  then  secures  it  upon  the  tympan.  The  form  is  then 
inked,  and  an  impression  taken  upon  the  frisket,  and  the 
printed  parts  only  being  cut  away,  that  which  is  left  protects 
the  paper  from  ink  or  soil.  The  puller  now  carefully  folds 
a  sheet  of  the  paper  according  to  the  crosses  of  the  chase, 
and  laying  it  upon  the  form,  opens  it  carefully,  by  which  the 
paper  is  made  to  lie  evenly  upon  the  form,  with  the  same 
margin  with  which  it  is  to  be  afterward  worked.  Having 
slightly  wetted  the  tympan,  he  turns  it  down  upon  the  form, 
and  takes  an  impression,  when  the  paper  will  be  found  to 
adhere  to  the  tympan,  and  thus  become  a  guide  whereby  to 
lay  all  the  subsequent  sheets,  and  therefore  much  care  should 
be  taken  to  lay  it  properly.  They  now  choose  their  jooints, 
which  are  thin  and  narrow  pieces  of  iron,  having  a  short 
point  or  spur  projecting  from  one  end,  and  a  shank  at  the 
other  made  to  screw  on  to  the  tympan-frame,  which  must  be 
done  in  such  a  manner  that  the  spurs  may  fall  into  the 
grooves  in  the  cross  of  the  chase ;  because  if  they  did  not, 
they  would  be  battered  or  broken  at  the  first  pull.  It  is  ad- 
visable to  make  the  inner  form  register,  for  it  may  be  very 
dijfficult  to  correct  any  error  in  the  furniture  when  the  m^er- 
ation,  or  outer  form,  is  laid  on. 

The  puller  now  brings  his  paper  from  the  wetting-room ; 
for  before  any  good  impression  can  be  taken  the  paper  must 
have  been  damped,  by  rapidly  passing  it,  one-fourth  or  one- 
fifth  of  a  quire  at  a  time,  through  water,  and  then  allowing 
it  to  soak  for  two  or  three  days  under  a  heavy  weight,  until 
it  is  evenly  and  thoroughly  damped  ;  and  laying  a  ream  up- 
on the  horse,  he  takes  a  sheet,  and  placing  it  carefully  over 

*  The  price  for  hand-press  work  in  America  is  twenty-fiye  cents  per  token. 


Printing — Practical.  85 

the  tympan-sheet,  closes  the  frisket  over  it,  shuts  both  tvm- 
pan  and  frisket  down  upon  the  form,  which  in  the  meanwhile 
his  companion  has  inked  (a  process  that  will  be  described 
below),  runs  the  table  in  under  the  platen,  pulls  the  handle 
of  the  bar  or  lever  over  by  his  full  weight,  until  brought  up 
by  the  stop,  at  which  moment  the  platen  descends,  and 
exerts  a  powerful  pressure  to  the  tympan,  etc.,  upon  the  form, 
producing  upon  the  paper  a  perfect  fac-simile  in  reverse  of 
the  surface  of  the  pages.  The  pressman  now  gradually  re- 
leases his  hold,  the  balance-weight  raises  the  platen,  the  bar 
returns  to  its  first  position,  the  table  is  run  out,  the  tympan 
and  frisket  are  raised  by  the  workman,  and  the  frisket  thrown 
up  to  the  catch.  The  sheet  is  taken  off  the  spurs  of  the 
points,  which  have  been  forced  through  it  by  the  pressure, 
and  the  back  of  the  impression  is  carefully  examined,  to  as- 
certain that  every  part  of  it  is  just  and  even,  which  is  the 
great  test  of  the  workman's  skill  and  the  excellence  of  the 
press.  The  first  impression  is,  however,  invariably  defective : 
the  parchment  may  have  been  thicker  in  some  parts  than  in 
others,  the  blankets  worn,  or  one  of  two  fonts  of  type  may 
not  have  been  of  equal  height,  in  which  respect  "  the  estima- 
tion of  a  hair"  would  produce  a  manifest  imperfection,  but 
which  may  be  remedied  by  the  thinnest  possible  tissue  paper. 
The  pressman  now  proceeds  to  overlay ;  that  is,  by  pasting 
upon  his  tympan-sheets  portions  of  paper  of  the  exact  size  of 
the  defects,  thicker  or  thinner  as  may  be  required,  to  hring 
up  the  form  ;  he  overlays  the  faint  parts  of  the  impression ; 
or  if  the  defect  be  great,  he  places  a  part  of  a  sheet  of  paper 
within  the  tympan,  or,  which  is  a  much  better  plan,  he  raises 
the  form,  and  pastes  the  paper  under  the  defective  part. 
If  there  be  any  small  portion  of  undue  prominence,  or  that 
'•  comes  off  hard,"  he  rubs  down  a  portion  of  the  tympan- 
sheet  with  his  wet  fingers,  or  cuts  it  away  altogether.  Hav- 
ing, as  he  supposes,  remedied  all  blemishes,  he  takes  another 
impression,  which  he  again  examines  with  equal  closeness, 
and  carefully  removes  every  remaining  defect  by  the  same 
method;  and  having  at  length  satisfied  himself,  and  his 
master  or  overseer,  that  the  form  is  well  brought  up,  the 
work  is  proceeded  with,  the  inker  taking  off  from  the  table 
with  the  roller  or  balls  even  portions  of  ink,  which  has  been 
well  distributed  on  its  surface,  and  rolls  or  beats  the  form, 


86  PivE  Black  Arts. 

being  very  careful  that  every  part  is  equally  inked;  the 
puller  taking  a  sheet  and  laying  it  on  the  tympan  as  before. 
They  thus  proceed  until  the  whole  number  of  the  white  paper 
is  worked  off;  when  it  is  a  good  precaution  to  count  the 
heap,  to  ascertain  that  the  number  printed  is  correct.  The 
form  is  now  lifted  from  the  table,  and  carefully  washed  with 
very  strong  lye.  The  outer  form  is  then  laid  on  and  made 
ready. 

The  making  ready  of  this  form  varies  a  little  from  the 
mode  previously  described.  It  has  been  stated  that  the 
spurs  of  the  points  penetrate  the  paper  at  the  first  impres- 
sion. The  holes  thus  made  are  the  guides  whereby  perfect 
register  is  obtained ;  that  is,  whereby  not  only  the  pages, 
but  the  lines,  are  made  to  fall  exactly  upon  the  back  of  each 
other,  any  variation  in  this  respect  being  a  great  defect  in 
good  book-work.  The  outer  form,  therefore,  having  been 
placed  on  the  table  in  precisely  the  same  position  which  the 
inner  previously  occupied,  a  printed  sheet  is  taken  from  the 
heap,  and  laid  upon  the  tympan  with  its  printed  face  inward, 
in  such  manner  that  the  spurs  of  the  points  pass  through 
the  holes  made  by  them  in  the  working  of  the  inner  form, 
but  of  course  the  opposite  way  ;  and  an  impression  is  taken. 
If  the  pages  do  not  back,  the  points  are  shifted  until  they  do  ; 
or  if  the  defect  arise  from  the  furniture  of  the  form,  such 
alterations  are  made  in  it  as  may  be  necessary.  The  im- 
pression is  then  brought  up  as  before,  and  when  all  is  ready, 
a  thin  sheet  of  white  paper,  called  the  set-off  sheet,  is  placed 
over  the  tympan-sheet  and  under  the  points.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  one  side  has  been  worked,  that  the  ink  has 
not  yet  dried,  that  the  paper  is  still  damp  ;  therefore  at  every 
impression  some  portion  of  the  ink  will  be  transferred  to  or 
impressed  upon  the  set-off  sheet.  When  this  has  taken  place 
in  many  impressions,  some  of  the  ink  of  the  print  will  be  re- 
transferred  from  the  set-off  sheet  to  the  sheet  then  working, 
producing  a  most  unpleasing  blurred  appearance,  very  per- 
plexing to  the  eyes,  and  utterly  destructive  of  the  beauty  of  the 
press-work.  To  obviate  this,  the  puller,  after  a  few  impres- 
sions, moves  the  set-off  sheet  slightly,  and  when  it  has  be- 
come very  black,  takes  it  off,  and  replaces  it  with  another. 
The  pressman  should  be  very  attentive  to  this ;  and  the  mas- 
ter should  not  grudge  ample  supplies  of  set-off  paper,  for  it  is 


Printing — Practical.  87 

not  destroyed,  but,  when  dried,  may  be  used  again  for  the 
same  purpose,  or  in  other  departments  as  ^Yaste  paper.  The 
form  is  now  lifted,  and  carefully  washed  with  lye,  and  the 
two  are  ready  for  the  composing-room,  where  they  are  laid 
up,  as  previously  described.  Two  good  pressmen  are  sup- 
posed to  do  about  one  token,  or  250  impressions,  per  hour  of 
fair  work.  This,  however,  must  depend  entirely  upon  the 
quality  of  the  work  required;  with  small  type,  stiff  ink,  and 
many  rules,  the  work  is  more  slow,  and  paid  for  accordingly. 
The  finest  work  is  seldom  paid  for  by  the  token,  the  press- 
men being  placed  upon  weekly  wages,  and  allowed  as  much 
time  as  they  require,  the  rapidity  being  at  the  discretion  of 
the  overseer.  Frequently  they  are  limited  to  a  certain  num- 
ber per  hour,  often  as  few  as  fifty,  the  most  careful  inspection 
being  given  to  every  sheet  by  both  pressmen,  and  continual 
attention  by  the  press-overseer  and  other  chief  persons  in  the 
establishment.  In  such  work  the  very  best  materials  are 
employed.  Instead  of  parchment,  the  tympans  are  covered 
with  fine  calico,  or  even  silk ;  instead  of  blankets  the  finest 
broadcloth  ;  picked  blotting  paper  for  the  thick  overlays,  the 
thinnest  tissue-paper  for  the  finer.  It  will  readily  be  under- 
stood that  in  all  operations  of  the  press-room,  where  every 
thing  depends  upon  the  skill  of  the  workmen,  there  are  in- 
finite minutiae,  which  it  would  be  tedious,  if  it  were  even  pos- 
sible, to  enumerate.  Seven  years'  apprenticeship  are  not  more 
than  sufficient  to  educate  a  good  pressman ;  it  is  the  accumu- 
lated labor  of  a  life  to  make  a  first-rate  one :  and,  after  all, 
excellence  depends  upon  the  native  talent  and  ingenuity  of 
the  man  himself. 

The  ink  is  distributed  over  the  type  either  by  balls  or  by 
rollers.  The  rollers  are  of  modern  use.  The  balls,  which 
are  such  prominent  objects  in  the  representation  of  ancient 
printing-offices,  and  which  form  part  of  the  armorial  bearings 
of  the  printers'  guilds  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  were  for- 
merly made  of  sheep-skins,  with  the  hair  taken  ofi"  by  lime, 
and  formed  into  a  ball  with  wool,  gathered  at  all  corners,  and 
nailed  upon  a  wooden  handle.  One  of  these  was  held  in 
each  hand ;  and  a  small  portion  of  ink  being  taken,  they 
were  well  beaten  upon  the  inking-table,  and  then  upon  each 
other,  until  the  ink  was  so  evenly  distributed  over  the  whole 
surface,  that  if  touched  gently  with  the  finger,  the  prominent 


L 


88  Five  Black  Arts. 

lines  of  the  skin  would  be  blackened,  whilst  the  channels 
would  be  left  perfectly  clean.  The  balls  were  then  beaten 
over  every  part  of  the  type,  so  that  the  whole  surface  should 
be  evenly  covered  ;  an  operation  requiring  much  skill  and 
practice.  The  skins  were  prepared  and  softened  by  the  nas- 
tiest processes  imaginable,  which  converted  a  press-room  into 
a  stinking  cloaca.  Thanks,  however,  to  the  observation  and 
ingenuity  of  Mr.  Forster,  a  practical  printer,  and  Mr.  Don- 
kin,  an  engineer,  this  has  been  entirely  done  away,  and  a 
press-room  now  regales  the  nose  with  a  warm  scent  of  ink 
and  paper,  any  thing  but  unpleasant.  This  invention  has 
been  of  the  greatest  consequence  to  printing.  The  printing- 
machine  is  said  to  be  the  handmaid  of  modern  literature  ; 
and  so  it  is  ;  but  without  this,  printing  machines  were  mere 
old  iron  and  brass.  Earl  Stanhope  had  attempted  to  substi- 
tute skin  rollers  for  skin  balls  ;  but  his  plan  failed  owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  preparing  the  pelts,  and  the  inevitable  seam, 
which  left  a  broad  mark  upon  the  type.  But  the  use  of 
rollers,  which  in  the  hand-press  would  have  been  merely  an 
improvement  on  a  process  in  use,  was  a  necessity  to  the  print- 
ing-machine, and  the  complete  failure  of  the  earliest  of  these 
machines  was  in  a  great  degree  owing  to  the  imperfection  of 
their  inking  appliances.  For  many  years  the  workmen  in 
the  potteries  had  used  a  composition  of  glue  and  treacle  for 
applying  colors  to  their  ware.  Mr.  Forster  observed  that  this 
composition  possessed  every  requisite  for  the  use  of  the 
printing-office,  and  he  immediately  proceeded  to  form  balls  of 
canvas,  with  a  facing  of  composition.  They  answered  admi- 
rably, proved  beautifully  soft,  distributed  satisfactorily,  kept 
clean,  and  were  easily  washed  and  purified  if  soiled.  Some 
opposition  was  offered  by  the  workmen ;  but  the  advantages 
proved  so  great  that  they  were  readily  adopted  by  the  mas- 
ters, and  speedily  drove  away  forever  the  nasty  skins.  The 
next  step,  however,  was  more  important  still.  Mr.  Donkin 
observing  the  adaptability  of  the  composition  to  casting  roll- 
ers for  printing-machines,  devised  moulds,  by  which  he  was 
able  to  cast  cylinders  without  seam,  and  of  somewhat  greater 
tenacity  than  the  original  compound.  The  rollers  answered 
perfectly  for  printing-machines ;  and  there  was  little  diffi- 
culty in  perceiving  that  at  the  hand-press  the  roller  might  be 
advantageously  substituted  for  beating  by  balls.     They  were 


[Plate  12. 


-    A 


^^5  7. 


Printing — Practical.  89 

accordingly  introduced,  and  after  meeting  with  some  oppo- 
sition, are  now  in  universal  use.  They  consist  of  a  solid 
wooden  cylinder,  with  a  thick  coating  of  composition  cast  in 
a  metal  mould  perfectly  true  ;  through  the  middle  of  the  cyl- 
inder passes  an  iron  rod  attached  to  a  curved  bar,  upon  which 
are  fixed  two  handles ;  the  roller  revolving  freely  upon  the 
rod.  The  pressman  regulates  the  quantity  of  ink  to  be  taken 
by  adjusting  the  pressure  of  the  straight  edge  against  the 
cylinder  at  the  back  of  the  table,  as  above  described  ;  and 
according  as  that  pressure  is  greater  or  less,  the  cuticle  of 
ink  on  its  surface  is  proportionately  diminished  or  increased 
in  thickness.  Having  taken  off  upon  the  inking-roller  a  line 
of  ink,  he  distributes  it  carefully  upon  the  table  until  the  en- 
tire face  is  evenly  covered,  and  then  rolls  the. form,  taking 
care  that  the  whole  surface  receives  its  due  proportion.  If 
he  does  this  lightly  and  steadily,  there  is  no  fear  of  the  re- 
sult ;  he  cannot  in  rolling  leave  any  part  without  ink  ;  but  it 
nevertheless  requires  some  judgment.  If  there  be  any  heavy 
titles  or  large  type,  he  must  roll  that  portion  several  times  ; 
if  there  be  blank  pages,  he  must  take  care  that  the  roller 
does  not  sink,  and  so  leave  the  pages  in  line  with  them 
slightly  touched.  The  greatest  judgment,  however,  is  dis- 
played in  choosing  the  exact  quantity  of  ink  required  for  the 
form.  If  the  type  be  small,  the  quantity  taken  must  also  be 
small ;  it  must  be  very  carefully  distributed,  and  the  form 
rolled  many  times  ;  for  if  the  quantity  be  too  great  the  type 
will  become  clogged,  and  if  too  little,  the  color  will  become 
faint.  The  pressman  must  from  time  to  time  examine  the 
sheets  as  they  are  printed,  and  in  working  the  reiteration, 
turn  up  the  corners  of  the  sheets  to  see  that  the  color  cor- 
responds with  that  of  the  inner  form,  detecting  with  quick 
eye  every  defect ;  and  he  must  be  particularly  careful  that 
for  every  sheet  of  the  same  work  he  takes  the  same  quantity 
of  ink,  so  that  the  book  when  bound  may  present  an  even 
and  beautiful  color,  every  bold  line  being  perfectly  covered, 
and  yet  every  fine  stroke  clear  and  distinct.  This  can  only 
be  effected  by  careful  distribution  and  repeated  rolling,  with 
nice  judgment  as  to  the  quantity  of  ink  to  be  taken. 

The  sheet  having  thus  been  worked  off,  the  printed  paper 
is  taken  away  by  the  warehouseman,  and  hung  by  the  boys 
upon  poles  stretched  under  the  ceiUng,  by  means  of  a  peel^ 


90  Five  Black  Arts. 

which  is  a  handle  with  a  broad  end,  upon  which  a  quire  or 
two  is  hung  at  a  time,  thence  transferred  to  the  poles,  and 
distributed  in  portions  of  four  or  five  sheets.  Here  thej 
hang  a  day  or  two,  until  the  ink  and  paper  are  perfectly  dry. 
This  should  be  a  gradual  process,  for  if  by  artificial  heat  the 
drying  is  hurried,  a  skin  will  be  formed  upon  the  surface  of 
the  ink,  which  will  prevent  that  underneath  from  drying ; 
the  work  will  look  very  well  until  it  is  pressed  or  bound, 
when  the  skin  breaks,  the  ink  spreads,  and  the  sharpness  of 
the  impression  is  entirely  destroyed.  When  perfectly  dry 
the  sheets  are  taken  down  and  laid  in  heaps  upon  the  gather- 
ing-board, each  signature  separately;  thus, first,  a  heap,  say 
1000,  of  B,  then  C,  D,  E,  F,  and,  lastly,  the  title-sheet  A. 
The  boys  then  take  one  sheet  from  each  heap ;  conse- 
quently, when  they  have  got  to  the  last  signature,  each  boy 
has  gathered  one  complete  copy  of  the  work.  These  are 
laid  upon  one  another  at  the  end  of  the  gathering-board  in 
such  a  manner  that  each  book  is  perfectly  distinct.  The 
warehouseman  then  takes  away  this  heap,  and  with  a  colla- 
tor (a  needle  inserted  in  a  handle)  goes  over  the  whole  with 
great  rapidity,  ascertaining  that  no  sheet  has  been  carelessly 
omitted,  and  that  more  than  one  of  each  signature  has  not 
been  taken.  The  books  are  then  folded  down  the  middle, 
counted  out  in  tens,  thirteens,  or  twenty-fives,  and  tied  up  in 
bundles  of  convenient  size.  The  process  of  printing  is  thus 
complete,  and  the  work  is  ready  for  the  binder. 

Works  of  finer  description,  indeed  most  works  of  the  pres- 
ent day,  are  submitted  to  another  process  after  they  have 
been  taken  down  from  the  poles,  viz.,  hot  or  cold  pressing, 
which  very  much  improves  their  appearance.  In  cold  press- 
ing the  sheets  are  placed  one  by  one  between  glazed  boards, 
which  are  sheets  of  coarse  material  pressed  and  glazed  on 
both  surfaces  by  burnishing  on  a  steel  plate  with  a  steel  ball. 
The  heaps  are  then  placed  in  a  hydraulic  press,  with  cold 
iron  plates  at  small  intervals,  and  the  whole  is  subjected  to 
considerable  pressure  for  some  hours ;  they  are  then  taken 
out,  and  the  sheets  extracted  from  the  boards,  when  the  in- 
dentations consequent  upon  the  working  will  have  been  all 
pressed  out,  the  roughnesses  of  the  paper  smoothed  out,  a  slight 
gloss  given  to  the  ink,  and  the  whole  will  present  a  very 
agreeable  smoothness  to  the  eye  and  the  touch.     Hot-press- 


Printing — Practical.  91 

ing  is  used  when  the  paper  is  very  stout  and  the  ink  strong. 
The  sole  difference  is,  that  the  iron  plates  are  heated  until 
thej  can  hardly  be  touched.  The  effect  produced  is  much 
greater  than  that  by  cold  pressing ;  the  whole  surface  of  the 
paper  is  perfectly  glazed,  and  the  ink  absolutely  shines ;  but 
the  effect  is  not  so  agreeable  to  the  eye  ;  it  is  too  glossy.  A 
machine  of  great  power  has  been  invented  for  superseding 
the  use  of  glazed  boards  and  the  hydraulic  :  in  this  machine 
the  sheets  are  placed  between  two  plates  of  copper  or  zinc, 
and  passed  in  rapid  succession  between  two  hard  steel  rollers, 
and  come  out  more  perfectly  smoothed  than  by  the  ordinary 
hot  or  cold  pressing.  As  these  processes  set  the  ink  and 
also  make  the  books  lie  perfectly  flat,  they  render  much  beat- 
ing by  the  binder  unnecessary,  which  is  a  great  advantage, 
as  the  beating  causes  the  ink  to  set-off  upon  the  opposite 
pages  when  the  work  is  recently  printed.  The  glazed  boards 
must  be  often  cleaned  by  rubbing  with  waste  paper,  or  they 
will  soil  the  sheets  placed  between  them.  Every  printing- 
office  of  credit  should  have  an  hydrauhc  press  and  glazed 
boards ;  for  it  is  incredible  how  much  smartness  pressing 
gives  to  the  work,  and  how  greatly  the  warehouse  work  is 
facilitated  by  the  readiness  with  which  the  hydraulic  is 
pumped  up,  and  by  its  great  power.  A  press  of  eight-inch 
ram  will  be  found  sufficient  for  most  purposes ;  but  where 
much  hot  and  cold  pressing  are  required,  one  of  ten-inch  ram 
will  prove  cheapest,  because,  from  its  immense  power,  a  few 
hours  are  sufficient  to  give  the  requisite  surface,  and  the  press 
may  therefore  be  filled  twice  or  thrice  a  day. 

Wood-blocks  are  very  often  worked  along  with  the  com- 
mon type.  The  block,  having  been  carefully  reduced  by  the 
engraver  to  the  exact  height  of  the  type,  is  placed  in  the 
composing-stick,  and  justified  to  the  width  of  the  page ;  it 
is  then  made  up  along  with  the  other  matter  in  its  proper 
place.  When  laid  upon  the  press  for  working,  and  an  im- 
pression of  the  form  has  been  taken,  the  pressman  examines 
with  great  minuteness  whether  it  stands  well  with  the  type ; 
if  not,  the  form  is  unlocked,  and  paper  placed  under  it  if  it 
be  too  low,  or  under  any  corner  that  may  be  lower  than  the 
rest ;  if  the  block  be  too  high,  it  must  be  scraped  or  filed  at 
the  bottom.  The  artist  in  wood  contents  himself  with  pro- 
ducing his  lights  and  shades  by  cutting"  his  lines  in  greater 


92  Five  Black  Arts. 

or  less  degrees  of  fineness  upon  a  plane,  leaving  to  the  printer 
the  task  of  producing  the  required  effects  by  a  tedious  pro- 
cess of  overlaying ;  so  that  the  pressman  becomes  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  an  artist,  and  must  have  a  good  eye  for  perspec- 
tive and  for  the  proper  adjustment  of  tints.  These  effects 
he  produces  by  careful  and  skillful  overlaying.  But  Bewick 
and  some  other  eminent  engravers,  instead  of  imposing  this 
tedious  process  upon  the  pressman,  used  to  cut  away  the 
parts  of  the  block  intended  to  appear  light  before  engraving 
them  ;  and  thus,  by  repeated  lowering  and  rounding,  they  so 
regulated  the  lights  and  shades  that  the  cut  left  their  hands 
in  a  fit  state  to  be  worked.  This  process  was,  however,  very 
costly,  and  has  been  discontinued  by  modern  artists.  In 
machine-printing,  to  prevent  the  loss  that  would  be  incurred 
if  the  machine  were  to  stand  still  during  the  operation  of 
bringing-up,  the  machiner,  some  time  before  the  sheet  is  laid 
on,  takes  an  impression  of  the  cuts,  and  by  overlaying  and 
other  processes,  so  prepares  them  that  they  require  very  little 
additional  work  when  the  forms  are  laid  on.  Where  it  can 
be  managed,  the  cuts  should  be  worked  in  the  outer  form,  to 
prevent  setting-off  and  the  impression  of  reiteration  upon 
them.  The  cuts  may  then  be  worked  with  the  type  without 
any  other  care  than  that  of  keeping  them  clear  from  clogging 
or  picks.  When  done  with,  they  must  be  very  carefully 
cleaned  with  spirits  of  turpentine  and  a  brush. 

The  working  of  wood-cuts  by  themselves,  as  illustrations 
of  works,  differs  from  type-printing  in  no  other  respect  than 
in  the  superior  materials  and  skill  required.  The  wood-cut 
must  be  imposed  in  a  chase,  and  locked  upon  the  table  of  the 
press,  which  is  generally  a  smaller  one  than  that  used  for  ordi- 
nary printing,  of  most  excellent  construction,  and  in  good  or- 
der. The  tympans  are,  as  before  stated,  often  of  silk  or  cam- 
bric. For  the  inking,  balls  are  preferred  to  rollers.  The  great- 
er opportunity  for  manual  skill  offered  by  the  former  enables 
the  pressman  to  exercise  an  artistic  judgment  which  is  not 
possible  when  rollers  are  used.  The  ink  is  generally  brayed 
out  by  a  muller  on  a  slab. 

There  are  in  London,  and  probably  in  the  larger  provincial 
cities,  parties  who  make  an  especial  business  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  composition  balls  and  rollers,  which  they  supply  to 
printers  upon  payment  of  a  rent.     The  skill  and  experience 


Printing — Practical.  93 

of  these  persons  enable  them,  as  must  be  the  case  in  every 
instance  where  a  manufacture  engages  exclusive  attention,  to 
supply  a  much  better  and  cheaper  article  than  could  be  man- 
ufactured by  any  individual  whose  engagements  are  varied ; 
consequently  there  are  not  many  printers,  either  in  town  or 
country,  who  do  not  avail  themselves  of  these  opportunities. 
The  rent  is  paid  for  each  roller  required,  and  by  the  quarter  ; 
that  is  to  say,  if  a  printer  employs  six  presses,  and  conse- 
quently six  rollers,  he  pays  for  six  rollers,  the  manufacturer 
engaging  to  supply  him  with  as  many  changes  as  he  may  re- 
quire from  their  getting  out  of  order  or  being  injured ;  in 
fact,  to  keep  him  supplied  with  six  rollers  in  good  condition. 
The  rent  for  a  common  press-roller  is  the  moderate  sum  of 
six  shillings  per  quarter;  they  are  sent  into  the  country  in 
boxes  fitted  for  the  purpose.  There  are,  of  course,  situa- 
tions in  which  it  is  not  easy  to  obtain  a  regular  supply  of  the 
necessary  article,  and  in  this  case  the  printer  may  very 
easily  make  them  for  himself ;  but  the  expense  of  the  uten- 
sils is  so  great  as  to  exceed  the  usual  rent  for  years.  They 
consist  of  the  following :  For  rollers,  a  hollow  cylinder  of 
iron,  the  bore  of  which  must  be  most  accurately  turned  and 
well  polished ;  this  mould  consists  of  two  semi-cylinders 
closely  fitted,  and  brought  into  contact  by  screws  along  the 
sides  and  collars  at  the  end,  and  a  head  is  made  to  fit  into  the 
lower  end.  The  core,  a  wooden  or  iron  cylinder,  upon  which 
the  composition  is  cast,  is  held  in  the  center  of  the  bore  by 
means  of  a  star,  through  the  radii  of  which  the  composition 
flows.  For  balls  are  required  a  concave  mirror  of  about  half 
an  inch  cavity,  and  a  board  of  the  same  size  and  of  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  convexity.  A  kettle  for  melting  and  mixing  the 
composition  is  also  required.  This  is  made  double  like  a 
glue-pot,  fitting  exceedingly  close,  and  with  a  small  orifice 
for  the  escape  of  the  steam  from  the  hot  water  between  the 
two ;  and  the  inner  vessel  should  have  a  large  lip.  The 
recipes  for  making  the  composition  vary,  and  this  appears  to 
arise  from  the  different  circumstances  under  which  it  is  made. 
The  ingredients  are  but  three,  and  these  easily  purchasable, 
viz.,  fine  glue,  treacle  (not  that  procured  from  the  sugar- 
bakers,  which  is  adulterated,  but  the  best  from  the  sugar-re- 
finers), and  a  small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  barytes,  called 
in  commerce  Paris  white,  or  of  carbonate  of  soda.     The  first 


94  Five  Black  Arts. 

two  ingredients  are  quite  sufficient  with  a  little  skill.     The 
following  are  good  recipes :  * 

1.  Two  pounds  of  glue  to  one  pound  of  treacle. 

2.  Two  pounds  of  glue  to  three  pounds  of  treacle. 

*  An  approved  method  of  composing  and  casting  rollers,  in  America,  is 
described  by  A.  E.  Senter,  pressman  in  Follett,  Foster  &  Co.'s  Printing 
and  Publishing  House,  Columbus,  Ohio,  as  follows  : 

Take  seven  pounds  of  Upton's  frozen  glue,  put  it  into  hard  water,  and 
let  it  soak  until  the  water  has  struck  half  way  through  it.  In  good  frozen 
glue,  this  will  be  in  ten  minutes — in  ordinary  glue,  considerably  longer. 
Then  take  it  out  of  the  water,  and  let  it  lay  long  enough  so  that  it  will 
bend  easily  ;  it  is  then  ready  for  the  kettle. 

The  kettle  for  melting  and  mixing,  should  be  so  set  as  to  heat  and  boil 
the  composition  by  steam  or  a  hot  water  bath,  in  the  manner  in  use  by 
cabinet-makers.  Let  the  glue  heat  in  the  kettle  until  it  is  all  dissolved,  or 
if  there  should  be  any  pieces  that  do  not  readily  melt,  take  them  out,  or 
they  will  make  the  roller  lumpy.  When  the  glue  is  all  melted  evenly, 
take  four  quarts  of  good  sugar-house  molasses  or  sorghum  syrup,  stir  it  in, 
and  continue  to  stir  occasionally  for  three  or  four  hours,  during  which  time 
the  heat  under  the  kettle  should  be  kept  up  so  as  to  give  the  composition 
a  gentle  boil.  To  try  the  composition,  take  a  little  out  on  a  piece  of  pa- 
per, and  when  cool,  if  it  is  tough  so  as  to  resist  the  action  of  the  finger 
without  feeling  tacky,  it  is  ready  to  cast.  A  person  can  generally  tell 
when  it  is  done,  by  taking  out  the  stirring  stick  and  holding  it  up,  when, 
if  the  composition  will  hang  in  strings,  it  is  done. 

A  very  important  feature  of  roller-making,  is  in  preparing  the  core. 
Strip  off  the  old  composition  with  a  knife,  and  scrape  the  core.  Keep 
water  away  from  it,  and  also  sweaty  hands.  If  water  is  used  at  all,  let  it 
be  hard  water,  and  let  the  core  dry  thoroughly  before  casting.  If  the  core 
is  likely  to  give  the  composition  the  slip,  brush  it  over  with  lime  water 
newly  made  with  quick  lime,  and  let  it  dry  well,  and  the  composition  will 
stick  fast. 

Have  the  mould  carefully  cleaned  and  oiled  on  the  inside,  set  it  upright, 
with  the  core  in  its  place  in  the  center,  then  pour  in  the  composition  hot 
from  the  kettle,  carefully,  upon  the  end  of  the  core,  so  as  to  run  down  the 
core,  and  not  down  the  inner  surface  of  the  mould,  as  that  would  be  likely 
to  take  off"  the  oil  from  the  mould,  and  by  flowing  it  against  the  core, 
would  make  it  peel  oflF  when  cast. 

When  the  composition  is  cold  in  the  mould,  and  ready  to  be  drawn  out, 
draw  it  steadily ;  trim  the  ends  with  a  sharp  knife,  beveled  toward  the 
core,  so  the  ends  will  not  be  so  likely  to  get  started  loose  ;  take  a  hot  iron 
and  run  it  around  the  ends  of  the  composition,  soldering  it  to  the  core, 
which  operation  will  prevent  water,  lye  or  oil  from  getting  in  between  the 
composition  and  the  wood,  and  making  it  peel  at  the  ends.  Do  not  wash 
a  roller  when  it  is  taken  from  the  mould  ;  it  will  be  all  the  better  for  two 
or  three  days'  seasoning,  with  the  oil  on  the  surface.  It  is  always  good 
economy  to  have  enough  rollers  cast  ahead,  so  as  not  to  be  obliged  to  use 
new  ones  until  they  are  seasoned.  In  washing,  use  lye  just  strong  enough 
to  start  the  ink,  and  rinse  off  with  water  immediately,  and  carefully  wipe 
dry  with  a  sponge.  Rollers  should  always  be  kept  in  an  air-tight  box, 
without  water,  and  in  the  room  where  they  are  worked.  Sudden  changes 
of  temperature,  as  from  a  cold  cellar  to  a  warm  press-room,  will  soon  use 
them  up. 


Printing — Practical.  95 

3.  One  pound  of  glue  to  three  pounds  of  treacle  and  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  Paris  white. 

(Sugar  is  sometimes  used  in  lieu  of  treacle,  and  is  said  to 
make  the  composition  firmer.) 

Soak  the  glue  in  water  until  it  is  soft ;  then  place  it  in  the 
inner  vessel,  and  boil  quickly,  until  the  glue  is  thoroughly 
dissolved ;  add  the  treacle,  mixing  it  well,  and  let  it  boil  for 
an  hour  or  more  ;  then  sift  in  the  Paris  white,  but  do  not  stir 
it  violently,  or  the  mixture  will  be  full  of  air-bubbles,  which 
are  destructive  to  the  roller  or  ball.  Rub  the  mould  slightly 
with  a  rag  dipped  in  thin  oil,  taking  care  that  no  globules 
and  streaks  remain  upon  the  surface.  When  the  mixture  is 
ready,  pour  it  gently  between  the  radii  of  the  star,  so  that 
no  air  be  detained  within  the  cylinder,  until  the  mould  be 
filled ;  allow  it  to  set,  and  then  take  it  from  the  mould,  cut- 
ting off  the  superfluous  portion  with  a  string.  When  the 
roller  has  been  hung  up  twenty-four  hours  it  will  be  fit  for 
use.  Owing  to  the  rapidity  of  the  printing-machines  re- 
cently introduced,  the  ordinary  rollers  have  proved  inade- 
quate to  the  work ;  but  improvements  have  been  introduced 
into  the  manufacture  which  remedy  the  defect.  The  ex- 
cellence of  the  new  rollers  is  said  to  depend  entirely  on 
skillful  manipulation.  The  ingredients  are  the  same,  but 
great  experience  is  required  in  the  choice  of  the  glue,  the 
proportion  of  the  ingredients,  the  mixture,  and  the  heat  ap- 
plied. In  making  balls,  having  oiled  the  mirror,  pour  the 
composition  upon  the  center,  and  having  allowed  it  to  spread 
itself,  lay  over  it  a  piece  of  coarse  canvas,  place  the  board 
upon  it,  and  lay  weights  upon  it  to  press  it  down ;  it  will 
consequently  be  found  that  the  composition  face  of  the  ball 
will  be  slightly  thicker  in  the  center  than  at  the  edges,  which, 
besides  being  a  convenience  in  the  working,  will  allow  it  to 
be  knocked  up  with  much  facility,  which  is  done  in  the  ordi- 
nary manner.  These  balls  and  rollers  are  very  easily  kept 
in  order :  if  they  are  too  soft,  cold  water  will  harden  them  ; 
if  too  hard,  warm  water  will  soften  them.  When  not  in  use 
they  should  be  covered  with  refuse  ink,  and  hung  up  in  a 
room  of  even  temperature,  and  carefully  scraped  with  a  pal- 
let-knife before  use.  They  should  not  be  cleaned  with  spirits 
of  turpentine,  as  that  will  give  them  a  hard  surface.  These 
rollers  will  be  fit  for  use  for  a  long  while  if  attention  be  paid 


96  Five  Black  Arts. 

to  them  ;  and  when  spoiled,  the  composition  may  be  repeat- 
edly melted  down,  and,  with  an  addition  of  new  materials, 
will  make  as  good  rollers  as  before.  When  the  proper  apara- 
tus  is  wanting,  small  balls  for  wood-cuts  or  single  pages  may 
be  made  upon  an  earthern  pallet,  or  even  upon  a  smooth 
dinner-plate. 

A  new  process  has  recently  been  patented  by  Messrs.  Har- 
rild  for  the  manufacture  of  composition  rollers,  which  enables 
them  to  resist  the  friction  of  the  fastest  machines  even  in 
the  warmest  weather,  and  to  continue  in  working  order  for  a 
much  longer  period  than  those  at  present  in  use.  They  are 
also  but  slightly  affected  by  atmospheric  changes.  These  are 
great  advantages  for  the  fast  newspaper  machines,  and  for 
country  printers  who  have  not  the  same  facilities  as  the  print- 
ers in  the  metropolis  for  changing  their  rollers  when  out  of 
order.  The  principal  difference  in  the  new  process  is,  that 
the  glue  is  liquified  without  any  admixture  of  moisture,  the 
condensed  steam  which  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  glue  be- 
ing entirely  drawn  off  by  a  syringe. 

STEREOTYPING. 

Stereotyping  is  a  mode  of  making  perfect  fac-similes  in 
type-metal  of  the  face  of  pages  composed  of  movable  types. 
Letter-press  printing  being  a  very  expensive  process,  the 
price  of  books  consequently  high,  and  the  heaviest  expense 
consisting  in  the  composition,  the  printers  of  the  Continent 
very  soon  set  up  the  entire  of  such  small  works  as  were  in 
constant  demand,  and  thus  were  enabled  to  sell  them  at  little 
more  than  the  cost  of  paper  and  press-work.  Some  works 
of  very  great  extent,  especially  Bibles  and  prayer-books, 
were  kept  standing  by  the  privileged  printers.  This,  how- 
ever, was  exceedingly  expensive,  as  the  cost  of  the  type  would 
be  very  great ;  the  forms  would  occupy  much  space  in  stor- 
ing, and  be  liable  to  continual  damage  from  the  dropping 
out  of  letters,  from  batters,  and  other  accidents  to  which  they 
would  be  unavoidably  exposed.  Some  method,  therefore,  by 
which  all  or  some  of  these  disadvantages  might  be  remedied, 
became  desirable.  About  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  Van  der  Mey,  in  Holland,  sought  to  avoid  this  lia- 
bility to  accidents,  by  immersing  the  bottom  of  his  pages  in 


Printing — Stereotyping.  97 

melted  lead  or  solder,  and  thus  rendering  them  solid  masses: 
"  c'est  une  rdunion  dcs  caracteres  ordinaires  par  le  pied, 
avec  de  la  matidre  fondue,  de  Tdpaisseur  d'environ  trois 
mains  de  papier  a  ^crire  ;"  therefore  the  mass  together  would 
be  somewhat  less  than  the  height  of  our  type.  It  is  not 
very  easy  to  imagine  how  they  contrived  to  make  the  backs 
of  these  blocks  of  such  evenness  as  to  produce  any  thing 
like  a  good  impression  ;  but  Dibdin  says  that  the  hook  is  very 
handsome.  The  same  process  was  followed  by  a  Jew  of 
Amsterdam,  in  printing  an  Enghsh  Bible ;  but  he  was  utterly 
ruined  by  his  speculation. 

Some  time  before  the  year  1735  there  is  sufficient  evidence 
that  the  French  used  casts  of  the  calendars  placed  at  the 
commencement  of  church  books.  These  plates  are  thus  de- 
scribed by  Camus :  "  It  (one  of  the  plates)  is  formed  of 
copper,  and  is  three  inches  and  a  half  long  by  two  inches 
broad  and  one-seventh  of  an  inch  thick.  From  the  rough- 
ness of  the  casting,  it  has  evidently  been  made  in  a  mould 
formed  of  sand  or  clay."  After  the  plate  had  been  cast, 
the  back  of  it  had  been  dressed  with  a  file,  in  order  that  it 
might  bear  equally  upon  a  block  of  wood  to  which  it  had 
been  attached. 

Who  really  invented  the  art  of  stereotyping  as  at  present 
practiced  (and  after  all,  he  who  finds  out  the  efficient  modus 
operandi  is  the  inventor  of  the  art,  though  he  may  not  be  of 
the  principle)  is,  like  the  inventor  of  the  parent  art,  a  mat- 
ter of  some  controversy,  which  has  been  carried  on  with  more 
vigor  than  the  subject  merited.  It  seems,  however,  most 
probable,  when  all  assertions  are  weighed,  that  WilUam  Ged, 
a  goldsmith  of  Edinburgh,  deserves  the  credit.  According 
to  his  statement,  being  in  1725  in  company  with  a  printer, 
they  lamented  the  want  of  a  good  letter-founder  in  Scotland  ; 
and  the  printer  asked  him  whether  he  could  do  any  thing  to 
remedy  the  inconvenience.  He  immediately  answered  that 
it  would  be  more  easy  to  cast  plates  from  pages  when  com- 
posed in  movable  type ;  and  he  undertook  to  produce,  and 
very  shortly  did  so,  a  specimen  cast  on  his  new  plan,  and 
not  long  afterward  made  arrangements  with  a  capitalist  for 
the  advance  of  the  requisite  funds.  The  latter  failing  to 
perform  his  part  of  the  engagement,  Ged  made  a  similar  con- 
tract with  a  London  stationer,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he 
7 


98  Five  Black  Arts. 

made  many  attempts ;  but  being  repeatedly  thwarted  in  per- 
fecting his  plans,  he  separated  from  his  partner,  and  made 
proposals  to  the  universities  and  the  king's  printers  for  the 
stereotyping  of  Bibles  and  prayer-books.  These  all  entered 
into  the  scheme  with  eagerness,  and  some  works  were  pro- 
duced from  plates  quite  equal  to  the  ordinary  printing  of  the 
day.  Nevertheless,  so  much  ignorance  and  prejudice  pre- 
vailed amongst  the  workmen  and  other  interested  persons  that 
Ged  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  undertaking.  He  entered 
into  several  subsequent  arrangements,  in  which  he  was 
equally  unsuccessful ;  a  type-founder,  in  particular,  causing 
so  much  opposition  that  the  invention  made  no  progress. 
Ged  died  before  he  had  met  with  much  encouragement ;  and 
his  son  was  equally  unsuccessful,  although,  as  the  practica- 
bility was  made  more  manifest,  the  very  parties  who  had  re- 
jected his  plans,  subsequently  made  extensive  use  of  his 
plates.  What  was  Ged's  method  of  stereotyping  is  unknown, 
as  he  kept  it  private ;  nor  did  he  fully  communicate  the  se- 
cret to  his  partners. 

Fifty  years  afterward  Mr.  Tilloch  made  a  similar  invention : 
but  from  private  circumstances  the  design  was  laid  aside,  not, 
however,  before  several  volumes  had  been  printed  from  his 
stereotype  plates  at  the  press  of  Mr.  Foulis.  Some  years 
after  this.  Lord  Stanhope  engaged  an  ingenious  London  prin- 
ter, Mr.  Wilson,  to  prosecute  the  invention  ;  and  after  many 
trials,  the  noble  lord's  ingenuity  succeeded  in  bringing  the 
invention  to  practical  use. 

When  a  work  is  expressly  intended  to  be  stereotyped,  the 
spaces,  quadrats,  and  leads  generally  used  are  somewhat 
diflferent  from  those  commonly  employed,  being  cast  of  the 
same  height  as  the  stem  of  the  letter,  in  order  that  the  base 
of  the  plate  may  be  more  solid  and  of  uniform  thickness. 
When  low  spaces,  etc.,  are  used,  plaster  is  poured  upon  the 
face  of  the  type  to  fill  up  the  interstices,  and  just  before  it 
sets  the  superfluous  plaster  above  the  stem  of  the  letter  is 
removed  by  a  brush,  which  damages  the  face  of  the  type 
not  a  little.  The  page  is  composed  in  the  ordinary  manner, 
and  very  carefully  corrected ;  it  is  then  imposed  in  a  small 
chase  with  metal  furniture,  and  the  whole  is  placed  within  a 
moulding-frame,  somewhat  less  than  half  an  inch  higher  than 


Printing — Stereotyping.  99 

the  type.     The  surface  of  the  type  is  then  rubbed  with  a  soft 
brush  holding  a  small  quantity  of  very  thin  oil. 

The  plaster  of  Paris  (gypsum)  of  which  the  mould  is 
formed  is  of  the  finest  quality,  and  may  be  purchased  ready 
prepared.  Having  been  carefully  mixed  with  water  to  the 
thickness  of  cream,  a  small  portion  is  gently  poured  upon 
the  surface  of  the  page,  and  softly  worked  in  with  a  brush, 
care  being  taken  that  every  part  is  fully  covered,  and  that 
no  air-bubbles  remain.  Then  a  larger  quantity  is  poured 
on,  and  spread  over  the  previous  layer  without  disturbing  it ; 
a  straight-edge  is  then  passed  over  the  moulding-frame,  clear- 
ing away  the  superfluous  plaster,  and  leaving  that  within  the 
frame  of  uniform  thickness.  It  is  then  left  to  set.  When 
sufficiently  dry,  the  moulding-frame  is  raised,  and  the  mould 
with  it,  from  off  the  face  of  the  page ;  the  mould  is  then 
dressed,  and  placed  in  a  heated  oven  until  it  be  perfectly  dry, 
and  raised  to  an  adequate  temperature  for  the  casting.  The 
oil  with  which  the  page  is  rubbed  prevents  the  plaster  from 
adhering  to  the  type. 

The  melting-pot  is  a  square  vessel  of  iron  about  two  inches 
and  a  half  deep,  having  a  separate  lid,  of  which  the  four 
corners  are  cut  off,  the  inner  face  being  turned  true,  but  the 
outer  face  hollow  toward  the  center.  A  floating  plate,  of 
which  the  upper  surface  is  turned,  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  pot.  Over  the  melting-pit  is  a  crane  with  a  rack,  upon 
which  a  pair  of  nippers  are  made  to  run.  These  lay  hold  of 
ears  upon  the  melting-pot,  closing  with  its  weight,  and  open- 
ing when  relieved.  The  metal  does  not  differ  from  type- 
metal,  and  must  be  sufficiently  fluxed  to  flow  easily,  but  not 
made  too  hot,  or  it  will  prove  brittle.  The  melting-pot  having 
been  heated  in  the  same  oven  with  the  mould,  and  conse- 
quently to  the  same  temperature,  the  latter  is  placed  within 
it,  the  face  being  turned  down  upon  the  floating-plate.  A 
bar  or  other  piece  of  iron  is  screwed  down  upon  that  part  of 
the  lid  which  is  turned  hollow ;  and  the  whole  being  suspend- 
ed by  the  rack  and  crane,  is  swung  over  the  melting-pit,  and 
gradually  let  down  into  the  metal,  which  flows  gently  into 
the  pot  through  the  openings  left  at  the  corners.  The  metal 
flowing  slowly  in  gradually  dispels  all  the  air ;  the  mould 
immediately  rises  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  lid ;  the  float- 
ing-plate being  specifically  lighter  than  the  metal,  rises  also 


100  Five  Black  Arts. 

to  the  edge  of  the  mould ;  consequently  the  metal  which  has 
run  in  between  is  of  the  exact  thickness  of  the  depth  of  the 
mould,  the  upper  surface  being  the  field  upon  which  are  the 
casts  of  the  type,  the  under  surface  the  smooth  surface  of 
the  floating-plate,  and  the  rest  of  the  melting-pot  being  filled 
with  metal.  The  pot  is  allowed  to  remain  immersed  ten  min- 
utes or  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  that  is,  until  the  air  is  supposed  to 
be  perfectly  expelled.  It  is  then  drawn  up,  and  swung  to  a 
board  resting  upon  a  trough  of  water,  and  there  allowed  to  cool. 
The  cooling  is  a  process  requiring  much  care  and  attention. 
It  is  obvious  that  unless  the  whole  mass  cool  equally,  the 
plate  will  be  warped,  and  consequently  spoiled  ;  it  is  equally 
clear  that  the  heat  will  more  readily  radiate  at  the  corners, 
and  consequently  that  the  center  will  remain  fluid  after  the 
other  parts  are  set,  and  that  the  contraction  must  be  unequal. 
This  is  provided  against  by  the  lid  having  been  turned  hol- 
low in  the  center,  and  it  will  therefore  allow  the  metal  under 
it  to  cool  more  rapidly.  The  mass  having  been  turned  out 
from  the  pot,  the  metal  under  the  plate  is  separated  by  a 
smart  blow  or  two  of  the  mallet ;  the  floating-plate  will  be 
readily  disengaged,  and  the  mould  be  removed  from  the  cast. 
Some  defects  will  invariably  be  found  in  a  new  plate ;  but 
these  are  removed  by  the  picker,  who  goes  carefully  over  it, 
clearing  away  the  picks  from  the  face  of  the  letter,  and  deep- 
ening the  larger  white  lines  with  a  graver,  that  they  may  not 
blacken  in  working  at  press  ;  for  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  quadrats  and  spaces  used  in  stereotyping  are  higher  than 
those  in  movable-type  printing.  If  the  face  of  the  plate  has 
cooled  evenly,  and  it  is  in  other  respects  a  successful  cast,  it 
is  placed,  the  face  inward,  in  a  turning-lathe  or  planing-ma- 
chine,  and  the  back  rendered  a  plane  parallel  to  the  face ; 
the  margins  are  then  squared,  and  the  edges  flanched.  The 
plate  is  now  ready  for  use.  If  any  errors  or  batters  occur 
in  the  plates,  they  are  cut  out,  and  the  corrections  made  with 
movable  type  let  in  and  soldered  at  the  back. 

A  great  improvement  in  the  stereotype  art  was  a  number 
of  years  ago  introduced  by  Mr.  Thomas  Allen,  printer  in 
Edinburgh,  into  his  establishment,  by  which  a  number  of 
plates  are  cast  at  once,  whilst  the  risk  of  broken  casts  is  con- 
siderably lessened.  This  is  effected  by  means  of  a  pot  suf- 
ficiently deep  to  contain  moulds  placed  in  a  perpendicular 


Printing — Stereotyping.  101 

position.  The  pot  is  an  oblong  square  cast-iron  box,  widen- 
ing toward  the  mouth,  and  having  placed  inside,  at  each  end, 
a  wedge-like  block,  of  which  one  face  is  parallel  to  the  side, 
while  the  other  is  perfectly  vertical.  On  the  vertical  side 
are  perpendicular  grooves,  at  distances  rather  greater  than 
the  thickness  of  a  stereotype  mould.  Into  these  grooves 
are  inserted  plates  of  malleable  iron,  by  which  the  interior 
of  the  box  or  pot  is  partitioned  into  spaces  sufficiently  wide  to 
admit  with  ease  the  plaster  moulds.  The  moulds,  when  baked, 
being  inserted  into  these  spaces,  a  cross  bar  of  metal  is  placed 
over  the  top,  instead  of  a  cover,  which  serves  to  prevent  the 
moulds  from  being  raised  by  the  liquid  metal  flowing  beneath 
them ;  and  it  is  then  suspended  upon  the  crane,  and  dipped 
into  the  metal-pit  in  the  usual  way.  By  this  method  not  only 
the  moulds  are  saved  from  all  risk  of  breaking  by  being 
placed  horizontally  and  pressed  between  the  two  broad  surfaces 
of  a  float-block  and  cover,  as  in  the  method  of  single-page 
casting,  but  a  number  of  plates  are  produced  at  one  cast,  and 
thus  additional  celerity  is  combined  with  greater  certainty  of 
sound  plates.  The  plates  of  the  Encyclopoedia  Britannica^ 
which  is  the  most  extensive  work  ever  stereotyped,  were  for  the 
most  part  produced  by  this  process,  in  pots  containing  each 
five  moulds ;  and  it  is  especially  advantageous  for  large  plates, 
the  risk  of  breakage  by  the  old  method  increasing  in  a  greater 
ratio  than  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  page. 

The  plates  are  sometimes  screwed  down  at  the  corners 
upon  blocks  of  wood,  the  height  of  which  is  the  difierence 
between  the  thickness  of  the  plate  and  the  height  of  the 
type.  This  answers  very  well  for  jobs  and  standing  adver- 
tisements ;  but  for  ordinary  book-work  it  is  usual  to  have  the 
blocks  formed  of  several  separate  pieces  of  mahogany  furnish- 
ed on  one  side  and  at  one  end  with  brass  or  iron  catches  (let  in 
and  screwed  to  the  blocks),  the  upper  part  of  which  is  turned 
over  so  as  to  take  hold  of  the  flange  of  the  plate.  But  as 
wood  is  liable  to  warp  and  to  other  accidents,  a  plan  has  recent- 
ly been  devised  of  making  hollow  blocks  of  type-metal  of  the 
requisite  height  and  of  different  sizes,  by  means  of  which  pages 
may  be  easily  composed  to  any  required  size,  the  plates  being 
fastened  on  by  brass  holders.  At  a  small  expense,  once  in- 
curred, the   stereotype   printer  may  furnish   himself   with 


102  Five  Black  Arts. 

blocks  capable  of  being  made  up  to  suit  works  of  any  meas- 
ure. 

There  are  many  smaller  instruments  requisite,  which  it  is 
unnecessary  to  mention.  The  founder  requires  some  prac- 
tical skill,  which,  however,  it  is  not  difficult  to  acquire ;  and 
the  excellence  of  the  casts  will  depend  upon  his  personal 
knack  and  observation.  The  best  metal  for  stereotyping  is 
composed  of  new  metal  and  old  type  in  moieties.  The  price 
of  prepared  metal  is  about  28s.  per  cwt.*  The  following, 
however,  are  proportions  which  may  be  used  when  the  pre- 
pared metal  cannot  be  procured : 

1.  From  five  to  eight  parts  lead,  one  of  regulus,  one  fiftieth 
of  block-tin. 

2.  One  seventh  of  pure  regulus,  six  sevenths  of  lead. 
The  best  lead  is  that  which  comes  from  China,  in  the  lining 
of  tea-chests. 

The  mixing  of  the  metals  is  exceedingly  injurious  to  the 
workman,  and  should  be  avoided  whenever  it  is  possible. 
The  foundery  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated,  as  the  fumes 
from  the  melting-pit,  and  the  moisture  and  smell  of  the 
drying  oven,  are  very  noxious. 

In  some  cases  stereotyping  is  of  great  advantage ;  but 
chiefly  in  books  of  numbers,  in  which  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  every  figure  should  be  correct.  In  this  case 
the  proofs  must  be  read  again  and  again,  until  the  correctness 
is  unquestionable  ;  when  once  stereotyped,  there  is  no  fear  of 
alteration  from  the  error  of  compositors  or  carelessness  of 
readers,  but  the  book  remains  the  same  for  ever.  Such 
works  also  are  most  expensive  in  getting  up,  and  the  cost  of 
composition  very  much  exceeds  that  of  stereotyping.  Books 
of  logarithms  may  be  especially  mentioned,  tables  of  longi- 
tude, indexes  to  maps,  and  other  works,  which  being  once 
written,  remain  unchangeably  the  same,  such  as  ready  reck- 
oners, interest  tables,  etc. ;  or  when  it  is  found  expedient  to 
have  duplicates  of  the  work  where  large  numbers  are  required, 
and  it  is  necessary  for  speed  to  work  on  double-sized  paper, 
the  cast  and  the  movable  types  are  imposed  together,  and 
are  worked  side  by  side  at  the  same  moment,  producing  two 
copies  instead  of  one.     There  is  also  another  advantage,  for 


*  la  the  United  States,  about  $10  per  cwt. 


I 


Printing — Stereotyping.  103 

the  stereotype  remains  without  further  expense  for  another 
edition  ;  again,  where  it  is  expedient  to  send  duplicate  plates 
to  other  countries  to  be  worked. 

Wood-cuts  may  be  stereotyped  with  great  advantage ;  for 
a  small  cut  which  has  cost  several  guineas  to  engrave  may 
be  multiplied  indefinitely,  and  at  a  cost  of  only  a  few  shillings^ 

No  printer  should  stereotype  by  the  common  process  who 
wishes  his  type  to  be  a  credit  to  his  house.  The  wear  of  the 
type  in  casting  is  very  great,  especially  when  low  spaces, 
etc.,  are  used ;  the  gypsum  is  at  best  a  fine  powder,  and 
grinds  away  the  edge  and  face  of  the  letter  when  rubbed  in 
with  the  brush,  in  a  frightful  manner.  The  letter  can  never 
be  entirely  freed  from  the  plaster,  and  will  present  a  very 
dirty  appearance  ever  after.  The  wear  of  a  font  of  1000 
lbs.  weight,  returned  six  times  from  the  foundery,  is  greater 
than  would  occur  in  six  years'  constant  fair  usage ;  besides 
which,  the  high  spaces,  quadrats  and  leads,  are  all  extra  ex- 
penses, for  which  the  economical  bookseller  makes  no  remu- 
neration whatever. 

The  plan  of  stereotyping  Bibles  and  prayer-books  has  been 
nearly  abandoned,  and  the  entire  sheets  are  kept  standing,  in 
movable  types,  at  a  great  expense,  by  the  Queen's  printer, 
and  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Before  every 
edition,  however,  is  worked,  each  sheet  must  undergo  a  care- 
ful reading,  in  order  to  guard  against  accidents  which  may 
have  occurred  since  the  last  edition. 

Such  is  the  process  of  stereotyping  at  this  time  in  com- 
mon use,  and  which  will  probably  continue  in  practice  in 
provincial  and  colonial  printing-offices,  by  reason  of  the 
readiness  of  the  materials  and  the  knowledge  now  acquired 
by  the  workmen. 

A  greatly  improved  method  has,  however,  been  recently 
introduced  by  Messrs.  Dellagana,  by  which  all  the  incon- 
veniences incident  to  the  existing  system  are  obviated.  The 
page  is  composed  with  the  ordinary  spaces,  leads,  etc.,  and 
there  is  therefore  no  additional  charge  for  composition ;  the 
destructive  tampering  with  the  face  of  the  type  is  avoided ; 
the  plast«r-mould  is  not  required ;  and  there  is  no  necessity 
for  reimposition,  as  the  new  moulds  can  be  taken  from  the 
pages  as  they  are  imposed  in  the  chases ;  and  the  forms  can 
be  returned  to  the  printer  within  an  hour  from  the  time  of 


104  Five  Black  Arts. 

their  being  sent  to  the  foundery.  So  great  are  the  resources 
of  this  invention  that  the  largest  or  the  smallest  pages  can 
be  cast  with  equal  facility,  and  either  plane  or  curved  to  suit 
the  periphery  of  cylinder  machines.  The  pages,  for  instance, 
of  The  London  Times  newspaper  are  each  cast  in  a  single 
plate,  in  a  curved  form  to  fit  the  cylinders  of  the  great 
machines  used  in  that  establishment.  The  following  is  a 
brief  account  of  the  process : 

A  page  of  a  newspaper  or  a  sheet  of  book-work  (as  im- 
posed), carefully  cleaned  and  perfectly  dry,  is  laid  on  an 
iron  chest  previously  filled  with  hot  water.  A  fine  brush, 
having  the  whole  of  its  surface  slightly  anointed  with  olive 
oil,  is  rubbed  over  the  face  of  the  type  to  remove  any  picks 
or  other  impurities  from  the  pages,  which  are  then  ready  for 
moulding.  A  substance,  in  appearance  resembling  two  or 
three  sheets  of  wrapper-paper  pasted  together,  of  a  soft  and 
pulpy  nature  (the  matrix),  understood  to  be  composed  of  an 
earthy  material  very  finely  ground,  and  afterward  felted  to- 
gether, and  which  is  not  affected  by  heat,  in  a  damp  state,  is  laid 
smoothly  on  the  face  of  the  type,  and  carefully  beaten  in 
with  a  brush  until  every  letter  is  indented  into  this  substance, 
and  the  matrix  is  thus  formed.  The  type,  with  the  matrix 
unremoved,  is  taken  to  a  press  and  subjected  to  a  steady 
pressure,  continued  for  two  or  three  minutes.  The  matrix 
is  then  removed  from  the  type,  which  may  now  be  returned 
to  the  printer.  Not  more  than  ten  minutes  is  required  for 
these  operations.  The  matrix  is  next  laid  upon  a  plate  heated 
to  200°  or  300°,  and  covered  with  a  piece  of  flannel  (as  a 
non-conductor  of  heat  and  an  absorbent  of  the  moisture  gen- 
erated in  drying)  upon  which  is  placed  a  thin  metal  plate  of 
the  dimensions  of  the  page  or  form,  to  keep  the  matrix  flat. 
[t  remains  on  this  hot  plate  about  two  minutes,  and  is  then 
ready  for  casting.  The  matrix,  with  its  face  upward,  is  now 
placed  in  a  "register"  flat  or  curved,  as  the  plates  are 
required  to  be  plane  or  convex.  The  register  is  formed  of 
two  iron  plates,  the  inner  surfaces  of  which  are  accurately 
planed ;  these  plates  are  joined  together  by  hinges  at  the 
further  end.  The  matrix  is  placed,  face  uppermost,  on  the 
lower  of  these  plates,  and  is  secured  on  three  sides  by  an 
iron  gauge,  which  varies  in  height  according  to  the  intended 
thickness  of  the  plate  about  to  be  cast.     The  upper  plate  is 


Printing — Stereotyping.  105 

closed  over,  and  the  two,  inclosing  the  matrix,  are  firmly 
clamped  together  by  an  iron  bar  which  passes  over,  with 
a  screw  in  the  center,  which  presses  the  two  plates  upon 
the  gauge.  The  register  swings  upon  trunnions ;  and  thus 
prepared,  is  turned  into  a  vertical  position,  and  the  metal,  at 
a  temperature  of  500°,  is  poured  in  through  a  mouth.  In 
one  minute  the  metal  is  set  sufficiently  hard  to  bear  removal, 
the  register  is  brought  back  to  a  horizontal  position,  the  upper 
plate  is  thrown  back,  and  the  cast  and  matrix  are  taken  out 
and  placed  (the  matrix  uppermost)  on  an  iron  table,  which 
is  flat  or  curved  like  the  register,  otherwise  the  cast  in  cool- 
ing would  contract  or  spring,  and  its  flatness  or  curvature 
would  not  be  preserved.  The  matrix  may  now  be  carefully 
lifted  off",  and,  if  required,  again  placed  in  the  register  for 
another  cast. 

The  curved  casts  for  newspapers  are  fixed  on  the  cooling 
table  by  four  screws,  and  the  dressing  is  performed  by  a  tool 
on  the  lever  principle,  which  cuts  ofi"  the  flange  or  waste  piece 
of  metal  at  the  top  of  the  page,  and  bevels  it  at  the  same 
time.  For  book-work,  the  under  surface  of  the  cast  is  planed, 
as  in  the  ordinary  mode.  A  little  chiseling  is  required  to 
lower  the  white  and  break  lines,  to  prevent  their  blacking  the 
paper  when  worked.  The  casts  obtained  by  this  process  are 
remarkably  true,  and  require  little  "bringing  up.'^  The 
matrix  is  uninjured  by  the  casting,  and  may  be  used  again 
for  any  number  of  casts,  or  preserved  for  future  use.  The 
power  of  multiplying  casts  from  the  same  matrix  is  of  im- 
mense advantage  where  large  numbers  are  required  to  be 
printed  in  a  short  space  of  time.  As  before  stated,  a  matrix 
and  the  first  cast  may  be  obtained  in  less  than  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  and  several  subsequent  casts  will  not  require  more 
than  five  or  six  minutes  each.  In  half  an  hour,  therefore, 
several  machines  may  be  at  work  simultaneously. 

It  is  of  course  not  necessary  that  any  cast  should  be  taken 
from  the  matrix ;  and  therefore  when  a  second  edition  of  a 
book  is  doubtful,  the  matrix  only  need  be  made,  and  may  be 
kept  until  required,  at  a  cost  of  not  more  than  one-third  of 
a  casting ;  and  when  used,  may  be  put  by  without  inconven- 
ience, and  another  cast  taken  when  the  first  is  worked  out 
or  injured. 

In  book-work  also  this  process  will  be  found  of  great  ad- 


106  Five  Black  Arts. 

vantage,  as  compared  with  the  charge  of  recomposition. 
The  matrices  of  a  work  of  500  pages  would  occupy  no  more 
space  than  a  ream  of  demy,  and  not  weigh  more  than 
10  lbs.  They  will  remain  unchanged  for  years  if  preserved 
free  from  damp  or  water. 

The  cost  of  casts  by  this  process  is  about  10  per  cent,  less 
than  by  the  ordinary  mode ;  and  the  proportions  of  lead  and 
regulus  used  in  the  composition  of  the  metal  are  those  given 
above  in  recipe  No.  2. 

The  great  excellence  of  the  imperial  Austrian  printing 
establishment  in  the  art  of  stereotyping  should  not  escape 
mention.  In  the  Exhibition  of  1851  were  some  magnificent 
moulds  taken  from  type  by  the  electrotyping  or  galvano- 
plastic  process.  From  these  moulds  other  copies  in  relief 
were  obtained  by  doubling  the  process,  which  are  stated  to 
produce  beautiful  work  ;  or  casts  in  type-metal  could  be  taken 
of  great  perfection.  A  curious  specimen  was  also  exhibited, 
the  work  of  the  Rubeland  ducal  foundery,  of  a  stereotype- 
plate  of  cast-iron. 

OF  POLYTYPAGE,  AND  OTHER  METHODS  OF  PRODUCING 
PRINTING  SURFACES  ON  METAL  PLATES. 

Many  considerable  improvements  in  stereotyping  are  to  be 
ascribed  to  French  artists  ;  but  stereotyping  has  never  been 
a  favorite  with  them,  and  they  have  rather  exerted  their 
inventive  talents  in  a  series  of  experiments  which  may  be 
classed  under  the  general  name  of  polytypage. 

In  1780  Hoffman,  a  German  residing  in  France,  not  satis- 
fied with  his  success  in  stereotyping,  made  many  ingenious 
experiments  in  polytypage.  Whilst  he  was  thus  engaged,  a 
practical  printer  named  Carez  discovered  a  method  which 
Hoffman  afterward  pursued.  The  page,  after  being  composed 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  was  attached,  with  the  face  down- 
ward, to  the  under  side  of  a  heavy  block  of  wood,  suspended 
from  a  long  beam.  Immediately  under  the  page  was  an  anvil, 
whereon  was  a  tray  of  oiled  paper  into  which  the  workmen 
poured  a  portion  of  type-metal,  attentively  watching  the 
cooling.  When  the  metal  was  on  the  point  of  setting,  the 
page,  block,  and  beam,  were  brought  down  with  a  very  smart 
blow,  forcing  the  face  of  the  type  into  the  setting  metal,  and 
producing  a  very  sharp  matrix ;  which  again  was  made  to 


Printing — Polytypage.  107 

take  the  place  of  the  type  upon  the  block,  was  struck  in  a 
similar  manner  upon  the  fused  metal,  and  thus  produced  a 
perfect  and  excellent  polytjpe  plate.  This  having  been 
properly  dressed  at  the  edges  and  back,  was  affixed  to  the 
usual  wooden  raiser  and  made  type  height,  and  might  be 
printed  separately  or  in  conjunction  with  movable  type. 
Several  cases  might  be  made  from  the  same  mould.  This 
process  was  designated  cliche. 

Ign,  a  native  of  Alsace,  who  settled  in  Paris  as  a  printer 
in  1784,  availing  himself  of  the  discoveries  made  in  the  art 
of  stereotyping,  endeavored  to  extend  them  by  inventing 
logotypy,  or  the  art  of  uniting  several  characters  into  a  single 
type.  He  printed  on  solid  plates  several  sheets  of  his  Jour- 
nal Polytype^  and  advertised  Father  Chenier's  Recherches 
mr  les  Maures,  3  vols.  8vo,  as  a  polytyped  book ;  but  being 
deprived  of  his  printing-office  in  1787  by  a  decree  of  the 
council,  he  was  prevented  from  executing  his  design. 

In  1791  M.  Gegembre  made  considerable  improvements 
in  the  art  of  polytyping  in  printing  the  fifty-sous  notes  of  the 
Caisse  Patriotique.  lie  caused  the  whole  print  of  the  notes 
to  be  engraved  in  relief  upon  a  plate  of  steel,  and  this  en- 
graving he  pressed  into  a  plate  of  copper,  from  which  poly- 
type  casts  were  taken.  Any  number  of  these  casts  could  be 
taken  from  the  copper  mould,  and  if  by  chance  the  copper 
mould  became  injured,  a  new  one  could  be  readily  made  from 
the  steel  engraving. 

When  the  revolutionary  government  commenced  issuing 
assignats,  it  became  necessary  to  have  an  immense  number 
of  plates  to  work  the  enormous  quantity  required  of  these 
documents.  A  design  having  been  approved  of,  artists  were 
employed  to  engrave  three  hundred  fac-similes.  Of  course, 
if  three  hundred  so-called  fac-similes  could  be  engraved,  other 
artists  would  find  no  difficulty  in  engraving  another  hundred, 
nor  could  even  the  bank-officers  tell  which  document  was 
printed  from  a  forged  fac-simile  and  which  from  the  plates 
engraved  by  their  authority.  The  consequence  was  an  utter 
want  of  confidence  in  the  government  paper.  To  remedy 
this,  the  committee  of  assignats  caused  many  experiments  to 
be  instituted  for  the  production  of  plates  which  should  be  not 
only  imitative  and  similar,  but  pro  re  identical.  The  plan 
adopted  was  the  engraving  a  plate  in  intaglio  on  steel,  from 


108  Five  Black  Arts. 

"which  copper  matrices  were  obtained  in  relief.  From  these 
perfect  fac-similes  of  the  original  engraving  were  struck  and 
were  worked  by  the  roller-press  in  the  manner  of  copper- 
plates. But  it  was  a  great  defect  in  this  process,  that  the 
air  compressed  within  the  hollows  of  the  letters  frequently 
destroyed  the  form  in  the  reproduction.  Upon  the  suppres- 
sion of  assignats  this  establishment  was  broken  up ;  but  some 
of  the  plates  and  matrices  are  preserved  in  the  public  reposi- 
tories of  France. 

Poly  typing,  as  now  practiced  in  England,  is  confined  to 
the  production  of  casts  from  metal  plates  in  intaglio  and  from 
wood-cuts.  Instead  of  the  cumbrous  machinery  employed  by 
Carez,  a  fly-press  is  used,  the  wood-cut  is  fixed  upon  what 
may  be  called  the  platen,  and  a  tray  containing  semi-fluid 
metal  is  placed  upon  the  table  of  the  press  immediately  under 
the  cut  to  be  matriced.  By  a  slow  motion  the  cut  is  im- 
pressed into  the  metal,  and  an  intaglio  matrix  is  produced. 
The  matrix  is  then  attached  to  a  drop  stamp  to  perform  the 
cliche  process,  and  by  the  rapid  descent  of  the  stamp  with 
the  matrix  attached  into  a  tray  of  molten  metal,  a  polytype 
in  relief  is  obtained.  The  type-founders  have  adopted  this 
process  for  the  production  of  casts  for  their  ornamental  de- 
signs ;  and  Mr.  Bramston  has  practiced  this  mode  so  success- 
fully that  he  is  able  to  take  fac-simile  polytype  casts  of  the 
most  elaborately  engraved  wood-cuts,  without  in  the  slightest 
degree  injuring  the  original. 

A  method  of  producing  raised  surfaces  for  the  purposes  of 
printing  has  of  late  years  been  extensively  used  in  Paris  and 
London,  chiefly  for  forming  maps  and  rough  designs  for  the 
cheap  illustrated  press.  The  art  is  of  French  origin,  but  has 
been  patented  in  England.  In  a  patent  granted  in  1853  to 
Mr.  Vizetelly  it  is  described  for  "improvements  for  produc- 
ing plates  for  printing  surfaces,  by  which  the  manipulatory 
process  of  engraving  is  superseded.'' 

A  plate  of  highly-polished  zinc,  copper,  or  steel,  is  thor- 
oughly rubbed  over  with  very  fine  pounce  powder  moistened 
with  water,  and  then  with  a  soft  dry  piece  of  linen  it  is  again 
rubbed  until  no  greasy  appearance  remains  on  the  surface, 
which  is  now  in  a  fit  state  to  receive  the  transfer. 

Where  the  engraving  has  been  recently  printed,  say  within 
a  month,  the  transfer  is  thus  effected :     The  print  is  soaked 


Printing — ^Polytypage. 


109 


for  five  minutes  in  a  flat  dish  containing  a  liquid  composed  of 
seven  parts  of  water,  one  of  azotic  acid,  and  six  drops  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  It  is  then  taken  out  and  placed  between  two 
sheets  of  blotting-paper,  to  absorb  the  superfluous  moisture, 
after  which  it  is  laid  on  the  prepared  plate  and  covered  with 
a  sheet  of  soft  paper,  and  subjected  to  the  strong  pressure  of 
the  lithographic  press.  When  the  transfer  is  thus  eSected, 
the  plate  is  washed  with  a  sponge  moistened  in  a  solution  of 
gum-arabic,  slightly  acidulated  with  nitric  acid ;  this  prep- 
aration having  remained  on  the  plate  for  five  minutes,  is 
sponged  ofi*  with  clean  water.  While  the  plate  is  still  wet, 
a  lithographic  roller  charged  with  ink  composed  of  bitumen 
of  Judsea,  powdered  very  fine  with  a  muller  and  mixed  with 
linseed  oil,  is  passed  over  it.  The  linseed  oil  must  be  of  the 
purest  quality,  and  be  boiled  for  at  least  an  hour,  and  after- 
ward filtered  through  a  felt  bag  containing  some  animal  black. 
For  zinc  plates,  lithographic  transfer-ink  and  melted  virgin 
wax,  well  mixed  and  ground  together,  must  be  substituted. 
When  the  plate  is  well  rolled  over  with  this  ink,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  transfer  only  has  taken  up  the  ink,  the 
parts  of  the  plate  where  the  lines  of  the  print  do  not  occur 
having  no  power  to  take  it  up.  While  the  ink  is  still  wet, 
some  resin,  ground  to  an  impalpable  powder,  is  distributed 
over  the  plate  with  a  piece  of  cotton  wool  or  a  camel's  hair 
brush,  care  being  taken  that  it  adheres  to  the  inked  trans- 
fer only,  and  not  to  the  other  parts  of  the  plate.  The  plate 
is  now  placed  over  a  spirit-lamp,  and  gradually  heated  until 
it  becomes  luke-warm,  in  which  state  it  is  allowed  to  remain 
undisturbed  for  at  least  two  hours  ;  if  expedition  is  not  re- 
quired, it  will  be  better  not  to  disturb  the  plate  for  twelve 
hours,  as  the  resin  and  ink  will  then  have  thoroughly  com- 
bined, and  more  completely  protect  the  portions  of  the  plate 
covered  by  the  transfer  from  the  corroding  action  of  the  acid, 
by  which  the  surface  in  relief  is  produced.  Before  the  plate 
is  subjected  to  this  "  biting"  process,  it  is  necessary  to  cover 
its  back  with  a  varnish  or  other  substance,  to  protect  it  from 
the  action  of  the  acid.  When  this  is  done,  it  is  placed  in  a 
slanting  position,  and  a  liquid  composed  of  nitric  acid,  diluted 
to  about  4°  Reaumur,  for  zinc  and  steel  plates,  and  to  about  12° 
for  coppers,  to  which  is  added  a  table-spoonful  of  spirits  of 
wine  to  every  half-pint  of  acidulated  water,  is  applied  with  a 


110  Five  Black  Arts. 

clean  sponge  to  the  surface  of  the  plate.  This  bathing  is  con- 
tinued for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  pure  water  is  then  poured 
over  the  plate  until  the  acid  is  entirely  washed  off.  The  plate 
is  then  again  sponged  over  with  the  slightly-acidulated  gum- 
water,  reinked,  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  acidulated 
water,  and  washed  with  pure  water  as  above  described ;  and 
these  operations  are  repeated  four  or  five  times,  until  the  ex- 
posed portions  of  the  plate  are  so  much  bitten  away  by  the 
acid  as  to  leave  the  transfer  suflficiently  in  relief  to  be  printed 
from. 

The  "  whites,"  i.  e.  the  blank  spaces  in  the  engraving,  must 
be  lowered  or  removed  to  prevent  their  receiving  the  ink  in 
process  of  printing,  and  blacking  the  paper.  This  is  effected 
by  covering  the  surface  of  the  raised  lines  of  the  transfer, 
and  the  sides  also  where  practicable,  with  engraver's  varnish, 
which  is  composed  of  bitumen  of  Judaea  dissolved  in  essence 
of  turpentine,  with  the  addition  of  lamp-black  to  make  it  of 
a  proper  consistency,  and  allowed  to  stand  two  hours  before  it 
is  used.  The  plate  is  then  bathed  with  the  solution  of  acid- 
ulated water  and  spirits  of  wine,  and  washed  as  before  de- 
scribed ;  but  in  this  operation  a  stronger  solution  is  used, 
being  8°  instead  of  4°.  "Where  the  whites  are  very  large, 
essence  of  spikenard  (aspic)  is  substituted  for  essence  of  tur- 
pentine, or  they  may  be  lowered  by  scrapers  or  gouges,  or  cut 
out  with  a  fine  saw.  Great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  bi- 
tumen is  entirely  dissolved,  and  that  the  varnish  is  made  of 
the  proper  consistency. 

A  raised  printing  surface  being  now  produced,  the  plate  is 
cleaned  with  turpentine  and  well  rubbed  over  with  charcoal, 
after  which  it  may  be  mounted  on  raisers  to  type  height,  and 
used  as  a  stereotype  cast. 

When  an  old  print  is  to  be  transferred,  it  is  treated  in  the 
manner  commonly  employed  by  lithographic  printers  prior  to 
making  a  transfer. 

Anastatic  printing  is  a  process  by  which  a  print,  whether 
from  type  or  a  copperplate,  maybe  reproduced  without  draw- 
ing or  engraving.  The  print  is  saturated  with  a  strong  so- 
lution of  nitric  acid ;  it  is  then  placed  between  sheets  of  blot- 
ting-paper, and  the  superfluous  fluid  absorbed  ;  after  which  it 
is  laid,  face  downward,  upon  a  polished  plate  of  zinc,  and 
another  placed  over  it.     The  plates  are  then  passed  between 


Printing — For  the  Blind.  Ill 

iron  rollers,  and  subjected  to  great  pressure.  The  nitric  acid 
is  thus  squeezed  out  upon  the  zinc,  except  in  those  parts  which 
are  protected  by  the  ink  of  the  old  print.  The  acid  bites 
away  the  zinc,  and  a  rough  surface  is  produced,  the  protected 
parts  continuing  bright  and  unaffected.  The  plate  is  then 
wetted  with  a  solution  of  gum  in  water.  The  corroded  sur- 
faces retain  the  fluid,  while  the  unaffected  portions  remain 
dry.  A  roller  charged  with  the  ink  used  by  copperplate 
printers  is  then  rolled  over  the  plate :  the  ink  covering  the 
dry  and  being  repelled  by  the  wet  surfaces.  This  is  repeated 
until  the  lines  of  the  print  are  well  covered  with  the  ink — 
a  process  which  is  rapidly  effected  if  the  ink  of  the  original 
print  is  fresh,  and  has  parted  with  a  portion  of  its  oil  under 
the  pressure  of  the  rollers.  Impressions  may  now  be  read- 
ily taken  in  the  same  manner  as  lithographic  prints. 

PRINTING  FOR  THE  BLIND. 

The  invention  of  printing  for  the  blind  forms  a  new  era  in 
the  history  of  literature.  In  European  countries,  one  indi- 
vidual in  every  1200  or  1400  of  the  entire  population  is  blind, 
and  in  America  one  in  every  2000.  To  open  up  to  this  large 
and  unfortunate  class  such  a  source  of  profit  and  pleasure  as 
reading  could  afford  was  long  considered  very  desirable,  and 
also  very  doubtful ;  but  while,  of  late  years,  embossed  books 
have  very  rapidly  increased,  it  is  exceedingly  gratifying  to 
find  that  blind  readers  have  far  more  rapidly  multiplied.  The 
credit  of  this  invention  belongs  to  France.  In  1784  Valen- 
tine Haiiy  printed  the  first  book  at  Paris  with  raised  letters, 
and  proved  to  the  world  that  those  for  whom  such  books  were 
intended  could  easily  be  taught  to  read  with  their  fingers. 
He  seems  to  have  caught  the  hint  from  a  blind  pianist  of  Vi- 
enna, who  distinguished  the  keys  of  her  instrument  by  the  sense 
of  touch.  After  many  experiments  as  to  the  form  of  his  raised 
letters,  he  at  last  chose  a  character  a  little  approaching  the 
Italic.  A  new  institution  was  at  once  established — Institu- 
tion Royale  des  Jeunes  Aveugles — and  Haiiy  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  it.  Twenty-four  of  his  pupils  exhibited  their  at- 
tainments in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  music,  and  geog- 
raphy, before  the  king  and  the  royal  family  at  Versailles,  on 
the  26th  December,  1786,  to  the  very  great  delight  of  those 


112         ,  Five  Black  Arts. 

high  personages.  In  1814,  when  Haiiy  was  pensioned  off, 
Dr.  Guilli^  was  chosen  in  his  stead.  This  enterprising  direc- 
teur-general  modified  Ilaiij's  letters,  and  prosecuted  the  pub- 
lication of  embossed  books  with  renewed  vigor.  Still,  how- 
ever, very  little  progress  was  made  toward  the  extension  of 
Haiiy's  system ;  and  their  books  could  only  be  read  by  those 
possessing  a  very  delicate  touch.  In  1806  M.  Haiiy  estab- 
lished schools  for  the  blind  in  Germany  and  St.  Petersburg, 
but  they  have  made  very  slow  progress.  It  was  in  Scotland 
and  the  United  States  that  improvements  were  first  made  in 
embossed  typography.  To  Mr.  James  Gall  of  Edinburgh  be- 
longs the  merit  of  reviving  and  improving  this  very  useful 
art.  After  canvassing  every  form  of  letter,  he  at  last  adopt- 
ed his  angular  alphabet.  Before  1826,  when  Mr.  Gall  be- 
gan his  experiments,  not  a  single  blind  person  using  the 
English  language  could  read  by  embossed  printing.  On  the 
28th  September,  1827,  he  published  A  First  Book  for 
Teaching  the  Art  of  Beading  to  the  Blind,  the  first  book 
printed  for  the  blind  in  the  English  language.  In  October, 
1834,  this  zealous  individual  published  in  a  perfected  alpha- 
bet The  Gospel  hy  St.  John,  for  the  Blind.  The  text,  which 
was  embossed,  and,  unlike  his  former  effort,  printed  not  with 
wooden  but  with  metallic  types,  consisted  of  141  pages,  with 
27  lines  on  a  page  of  70  square  inches.  This  book  was 
counted  a  great  improvement,  but  it  was  objected  that  the 
types  were  too  angular.  He  afterward  printed  a  number  of 
books  with  serrated  edges.  It  is  unquestionably  to  Mr.  Gall, 
more  than  to  any  other  man,  that  the  interest  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  blind  was  awakened  throughout  Great  Britain 
and  America.  While  Mr.  Gall  was  engaged  in  perfecting 
his  plan  in  this  country.  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  of  the  Perkins 
Institution,  Boston,  United  States,  was  busily  engaged  in  de- 
veloping his  system.  In  1833  Dr.  Howe  began,  like  Gall, 
by  taking  Haiiy's  invention  as  the  basis  of  his  system,  and 
soon  effected  those  improvements  upon  it  which  have  given 
so  wide  a  fame  to  the  Boston  press.  He  chose  the  common 
Roman  letter  of  the  lower  case,  reducing  it  by  cutting  off 
the  flourishes,  etc.,  until  it  occupied  but  a  space  and  a  half 
instead  of  three.  This  alphabet  remains  unchanged.  So 
rapid  was  his  progress,  that  in  1836  he  printed  in  relief  the 
whole  of  the  New  Testament  for  the  first  time  in  any  Ian- 


Printing — For  the  Blind.  113 

guage,  in  4  small  quarto  volumes,  comprising  624  pages,  for 
four  dollars.  More  than  twelve  times  this  amount  has  now 
been  printed,  and  seventeen  of  the  American  States  have 
adopted  Dr.  Howe's  method. 

The  Society  of  Arts  in  Edinburgh  awarded  a  medal,  on 
the  31st  of  May,  1837,  to  Dr.  Fry  of  London  for  the  inven- 
tion of  an  alphabet,  which  seems,  however,  to  have  been  in 
use  in  Philadelphia* since  1833.  Mr.  Alston  of  Glasgow  im- 
proved upon  Fry's  alphabet,  by  reducing  the  size  of  the  let- 
ters, and  sharpening  the  embossing.  In  1840  Mr.  Alston 
published  the  entire  Old  Testament  in  lo  quarto  volumes,  of 
2535  pages,  and  37  Hues  to  a  page,  in  double  pica  type. 
Alston,  in  his  just  pride,  designated  this  "  the  first  Bible  ever 
printed  for  the  blind ;  "  in  which  he  was  wrong,  however,  for 
Boston  had  claimed  the  honor  years  before.  Some  70  dis- 
tinct volumes  have  been  printed  by  the  Glasgow  press ;  but 
since  the  death  of  Alston,  on  the  20th  of  August,  1846,  it 
has  almost  ceased  to  work.  Since  1837  it  has  supplied  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  and  Scotland  with  embossed  books  in  Koman 
type.  The  best  of  all  the  arbitrary  systems  is  that  of  T. 
M.  Lucas  of  Bristol,  who  set  it  on  foot  about  1835,  and  which 
"  The  London  Society  for  Teaching  the  Blind  to  Read"  has 
been  gradually  improving  since  its  establishment  in  1839.  In 
May,  1838,  "  The  London  and  Blackheath  Association  for 
Embossing  the  Scriptures"  adopted  the  phonetic  method  of 
James  Hartley  Frerc.  A  cheap  plan  of  embossing  or  stereo- 
typing was  devised  by  Mr.  Frere  in  1839.  His  books  read 
from  left  to  right,  and  back,  after  the  ancient  Greek  l3ov- 
(f-pQ9r,Sov  writing.  Mr.  Moon,  of  the  Brighton  Blind  Asylum, 
has  slightly  improved  on  Mr.  Frere's  method.  Dr.  Howie's 
typography  is  judged,  however,  to  be  superior  to  the  British 
both  in  cheapness  and  in  size.  There  are  at  present  no  less  than 
five  different  systems  of  typography  in  use  in  Great  Britain. 

The  following  table  shows  the  results  of  the  six  systems  of 
printing  for  the  blind  used  in  the  English  language,  taking 
the  New  Testament  as  a  standard  of  comparison : 

8 


114 


Five  Black  Arts. 


Systems. 

No.  of 
Vols. 

Size. 

No.  of 
Pages. 

No.  of 
Lines  in 
a  Page. 

No.  of 
Square 
Inch. in 
a  Page. 

Price. 

The  New  Testameat— 
Howe's 

2 
4 
8 
9 
8 
9 

4to. 

u 
<< 
(< 

Ob.  4to. 

430 
623 

'*84l' 
723 

■*42" 

28 
,  27 

'"25'" 

117 

90 

70 

70 

110 

110 

L.  s.  d. 
0  16  0 

Alston's 

2     0  0 

Gall's 

2     0  0 

Lucas's 

2     0  0 

Frere's 

2  10  0 

Moon's 

4  10  0 

OTHER  PROCESSES. 

To  the  magnificent  establishment  of  the  imperial  printing- 
office  at  Vienna  we  owe  the  introduction  of  several  pro- 
cesses, which,  though  not  founded  on  the  use  of  type,  belong 
to  the  art  of  printing.  The  description  of  these  new  arts  is 
derived  from  the  Reports  of  Jurors  of  the  Exhibition  of 
1851.* 

Galcano-plastie  Process. — The  Austrian  department  con- 
tained some  extraordinary  prints  of  fossil  fishes,  which  were 
produced  by  the  following  process :  By  means  of  successive 
layers  of  gutta  percha  applied  to  the  stone  inclosing  the  pet- 
rified fish  a  mould  is  obtained,  which  being  afterward  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  a  galvanic  battery,  is  quickly  covered 
with  coatings  of  copper,  forming  a  plate  upon  which  all  the 
marks  of  the  fish  are  reproduced  in  relief,  and  which,  when 
printed  at  the  common  press,  gives  a  result  upon  the  paper 
identical  with  the  object  itself. 

Grolvanography. — The  artist  covers  a  plate  of  silvered  cop- 
per with  several  coats  of  a  paint  composed  of  any  oxide — such 
as  that  of  iron,  burnt  terra  sienna,  or  black-lead — ground  with 
linseed  oil.  The  substance  of  these  coats  is  thick  or  thin  ac- 
cording to  the  intensity  to  be  given  to  the  lights  or  shades. 
The  plate  is  then  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  galvanic  bat- 
tery, from  which  another  plate  is  obtained  reproducing  an  in- 
taglio copy,  with  all  the  unevenness  of  the  original  painting. 
This  is  an  actual  copperplate  resembling  an  aquatint  engrav- 
ing. It  may  be  touched  up  by  the  engraving-tool.  This 
process  has  been  improved  upon  by  outlines  etched  in  the 


*  At  London. 


Printing — Nature.  115 

usual  manner,  and  the  tones  laid  on  with  a  roulette.  A 
galvano-plastic  copy  of  this  sunk  plate  is  obtained.  On  this 
second  raised  plate  the  artist  completes  his  picture  by  means 
of  chalks  and  Indian  ink,  and  puts  in  the  lights  and  shades; 
from  this  a  second  galvano-plastic  copy  is  produced.  This 
second  copy  or  sunk  plate,  the  third  in  the  order  of  procedure, 
serves,  after  being  touched  up,  for  printing  from  in  the  cop- 
perplate-press. 

G-aloanoglyphy. — Upon  a  plate  of  zinc  coated  with  var- 
nish a  drawing  is  etched ;  then  ink  or  varnish  is  rolled  over. 
The  ink  adheres  only  to  the  parts  it  touches,  every  applica- 
tion when  dry  raising  the  coating  and  consequently  deepen- 
ing the  etched  lines — a  galvanic  battery  produces  a  plate  in 
relief,  which  is  printed  at  the  common  press. 

Chemiiypy. — A  polished  zinc  plate  is  covered  with  an 
etching-ground.  The  etching  is  bitten  in  with  diluted  aqua- 
fortis. Remove  the  etching-ground,  and  carefully  wash  out 
the  aquafortis.  Heat  the  plate  thus  cleansed  over  a  spirit- 
lamp,  after  covering  with  filings  of  a  fusible  metal,  until  fu- 
sible metal  has  filled  all  the  lines  of  the  engraving.  When 
cold,  scrape  down  to  level  of  zinc  plate  until  none  of  the  metal 
remains  but  what  has  entered  into  the  engraving.  Place 
compound  plate  in  solution  of  muriatic  acid  ;  and  as  of  the 
two  metals  one  is  positive  the  other  negative,  the  zinc  alone 
is  eaten  away  by  the  acid,  and  the  fusible  metal  which  had 
filled  the  lines  of  the  engraving  is  left  in  relief,  and  may  be 
printed  by  the  common  press. 

Paneiconography. — On  a  polished  plate  of  zinc  draw  with 
lithographic  crayon  or  ink,  or  transfer  impressions  from  lithog- 
raphy, wood  engraving,  or  copperplates.  The  thickness  of 
the  drawn  lines  is  increased  by  repeated  rollings  or  powdered 
resin.  For  relief-block,  place  plate  in  trough  of  very  dilute 
sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid.  The  acid  eats  away  the 
unprotected  parts  of  the  plate,  and  leaves  raised  lines  of  the 
protected  parts. 

NATURE-PRINTING. 

Mr.  Henry  Bradbury,  who  has  had  a  principal  share  in 
introducing  this  beautiful  process  into  England,  describes  it 
as  a  method  of  producing  impressions  of  plants  and  other 


116  Five  Black  Arts. 

natural  objects,  in  a  manner  so  truthful  that  only  a  close  in- 
spection reveals  the  fact  of  their  being  copies.  So  deeply 
sensible  to  the  touch  are  the  impressions,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
persuade  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  manipulation 
that  they  are  the  production  of  the  printing-press.  The 
process,  in  its  application  to  the  reproduction  of  botanical 
subjects,  represents  the  size,  form,  and  color  of  the  plant,  and 
all  its  most  minute  details,  even  to  the  smallest  fibers  of  the 
roots.  The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  process,  compared 
with  other  modes  of  producing  engraved  surfaces  for  printing 
purposes,  consists,  firstly,  in  imprinting  natural  objects — such 
as  plants,  mosses,  sea-weeds,  feathers,  and  embroideries — into 
plates  of  metal,  causing,  as  it  were,  the  objects  to  engrave 
themselves  by  pressure  ;  and,  secondly,  in  being  able  to  take 
such  casts  or  copies  of  the  impressed  plates  as  can  be  printed 
from  at  the  ordinary  copperplate-press. 

The  art  is  by  no  means  new  in  idea,  many  persons  having 
attempted  something  analogous  to  the  present  process,  and 
produced  results  which  were  imperfect,  merely  because  science 
had  not  yet  discovered  an  art  necessary  to  its  practical  devel- 
opment. It  is  to  the  discovery  of  electrotyping  that  the  exist- 
ing art  of  nature-printing  is  due. 

The  progress  of  the  art,  and  the  persons  to  whose  ingenuity 
the  steps  were  severally  due,  are  stated  by  Mr.  Bradbury 
thus: 

Professor  Kniphof  of  Erfurt  took  impressions  from  leaves, 
etc.,  which  had  been  colored  with  lamp-black,  printers'  ink, 
etc.,  1728-57. 

Kyhl,  a  goldsmith  of  Copenhagen,  took  copies  of  natural 
objects  in  plates  of  metal  between  two  steel  rollers.  These 
were  not  for  the  purposes  of  printing,  but  for  reproduction  of 
embossing  and  ornamentation  in  metal.     1833. 

In  1851  Dr.  Ferguson  Branson  of  Sheffield  read  a  paper 
before  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  which  he  detailed  some  experi- 
ments in  nature-printing.  He  had  taken  impressions  from 
plants,  etc.,  in  gutta  percha,  for  the  purpose  of  having  them 
printed.  The  experiment  failed  through  the  softness  of  the 
material.  Dr.  Branson  then  bethought  kimself  of  the  elec- 
trotype process ;  but  appears  to  have  found  it  too  tedious  and 
costly,  and  he  abandoned  the  idea. 

In  1849  Professor  Leydolt  of  Vienna  availed  himself  of 


Printing — Nature.  1 '-  7 

the  facilities  aflforded  by  the  imperial  printing-ofBce  to  carry 
out  experiments  in  the  representation  of  flat  objects  of  min- 
eralogy,— such  as  agates,  fossils,  and  petrifactions, — and 
obtained  great  results.  Soon  after,  Haidinger  and  Abbate 
suggested,  the  former  the  reproduction  of  plants,  etc.,  and 
the  latter  the  representation  by  this  means  of  different  sorts 
of  ornamental  woods  on  woven  fabrics,  paper,  and  plain  wood ; 
and  lastly,  Andrew  Worring,  of  the  imperial  printing-office, 
Vienna,  perfected  the  application  of  these  processes  to  print- 
ing, 1853. 

These  circumstances  are  dwelt  upon  at  some  length,  because 
nature-printing  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  and  appears  capable  of 
development  to  a  degree  at  which  it  will  be  an  impressorial 
art  of  greater  importance  than  any  which  has  been  invented 
since  the  art  of  printing  itself.  Worring's  services  were  so 
highly  estimated  that  the  emperor  rewarded  him  with  a  mu- 
nificent gift,  and  with  the  Order  of  Merit. 

The  plant,  perfectly  dry,  or  any  other  suitable  subject,  is 
placed  on  a  plate  of  fine  rolled  lead,  the  surface  of  which  has 
been  polished  by  planing.  The  plate  and  subject  are  then 
passed  between  rollers,  by  the  pressure  of  which  the  subject 
is  forced  into  the  surface  of  the  lead.  The  leaden  plate  is 
then  subjected  to  a  moderate  heat,  by  the  action  of  which  the 
subject  is  loosened  from  its  bed  and  easily  removed.  This 
mould  is  then  subjected  to  the  galvano-plastic  process,  the 
second  cast  being  a  perfect  fac-simile  of  the  leaden  mould. 
When  the  subject  to  be  printed  is  of  one  color  only,  that 
pigment  is  rubbed  in,  and  any  superfluity  removed ;  but 
when  it  is  of  two  or  more  colors,  the  process  is  simple,  but, 
it  is  believed,  perfectly  novel  in  any  process  of  printing  here- 
tofore practiced.  In  the  case,  for  instance,  of  flowering 
plants,  having  stems,  roots,  leaves,  and  flowers,  the  plan 
adopted  in  the  inking  of  the  plate  is  to  apply  the  darkest 
color,  which  generally  happens  to  be  that  of  the  roots,  first ; 
the  superfluous  color  is  cleaned  off";  the  next  darkest  color, 
such,  perhaps,  as  that  of  the  stems,  is  then  appHed,  the 
superfluous  color  of  which  is  also  cleaned  off";  this  mode  is 
continued  until  every  part  of  the  plant  in  the  copperplate  has 
received  the  right  tint.  In  this  state,  before  the  plate  is 
printed,  the  color  in  the  different  parts  of  the  copper  looks 
as  if  the  plant  were  imbedded  in  the  metal.     The  plate  thus 


118  Five  Black  Arts. 


charged,  with  the  paper  laid  over  it,  is  placed  upon  a  copper- 
plate-press, the  upper  roller  of  which  is  covered  with  five  or 
six  layers  of  blanket  of  compact  fine  texture.  The  elFect  of 
the  pressure  is,  that  all  the  colors  are  printed  by  one  impres- 
sion ;  for  when  the  paper  is  removed  the  plant  is  seen  quite 
perfect,  highly  embossed,  with  the  roots,  stems,  and  other 
parts,  each  of  its  proper  tint. 

The  great  national  work  which  the  Austrian  establishment 
has  produced  as  the  exemplar  of  the  new  art  is  truly  imperial. 
The  Physiotypia  Plantarum  Austriacarum  consists  of  five 
volumes  large  folio,  containing  500  plates  (about  600  plants), 
with  a  quarto  volume  of  plates  and  text.  The  first  produc- 
tion of  the  English  press,  though  it  will  bear  no  comparison 
in  extent  with  the  imperial  magnificence  of  the  Austrian 
work,  fully  equals  it  in  beauty  of  execution.  It  is  The  Ferns 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland^  by  Thomas  Moore,  edited  by 
I)r.  Lindley,  imperial  folio,  with  51  plates.  It  is  printed  by 
Mr.  Bradbury. 

PRINTING  IN  COLORS. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  aids  to  typography,  the  art  of 
printing  in  colors,  has  been  unduly  neglected  in  this  country ; 
at  least  so  far  as  relates  to  the  embellishing  works  of  ordinary 
excellence  with  vignettes,  capitals,  tail-pieces,  and  other 
devices  of  fancy,  in  beautiful  tints,  in  the  manner  of  the 
early  typographers.  It  is  true  that  some  very  beautiful 
works,  illustrated  with  remarkable  richness  of  design  and 
color,  have  been  produced ;  but  these  have  been  executed 
rather  as  examples  of  the  beautiful  in  art  than  as  books, — the 
work  of  the  artist  has  been  the  principal  object,  and  the  work  of 
the  author  the  occasion  and  vehicle.  In  other  works,  chiefly 
ecclesiastical,  the  object  has  been  to  reproduce  in  facsimile 
the  rich  illuminations  of  the  monkish  scribes.  But  as  regards 
the  average  printing — the  literature  of  the  day — the  art  of 
printing  in  colors  has  been  very  much  neglected.  This  may 
very  easily  be  accounted  for.  To  print  in  two  colors  occu- 
pies more  than  twice  the  time  necessary  to  print  in  one ;  and 
it  also  requires  more  skill  and  ingenuity.  These  unfortunately 
must  be  paid  for ;  and  this  pecuniary  consideration  is  suf- 
ficient to  banish  from  our  pages  this  lovely  art.     So  did  not 


Printing — In  Colors.  119 

our  forefathers  ;  they  took  pride  in  choosing  the  most  tasteful 
designs,  the  most  harmonious  colors,  to  illuminate  their  pro- 
ductions, and  beguile  the  reader  into  study  by  the  illusive 
charms  of  gold,  and  blue,  and  crimson.  Fortunately,  either 
time  was  of  little  value,  or  the  exclusive  possession  of  the 
market  enabled  them  to  demand  remunerating  prices  for  the 
time  thus  well  bestowed ;  but  in  the  bustle  and  competition 
of  our  more  mercantile  days,  time  is  money,  and  blue  and 
gold,  scarlet  and  green,  give  way  to  the  equally  useful  but 
infinitely  less  beautiful  uniformity  of  unredeemed  black.  To 
a  country  printer,  however,  some  knowledge  of  color-printing 
would  be  of  advantage,  because,  as  his  fonts  of  type  are 
more  limited,  he  can  create  unlimited  variety  by  a  judicious 
use  of  colors  in  job-work:  moreover,  as  he  has  usually  much 
more  time  upon  his  hands,  his  ingenuity  would  have  ample 
scope  for  the  production  of  small  works  of  vertu,  in  a  taste 
which  cannot  be  indulged  by  the  denizens  of  a  busy  me- 
tropolis. 

Except  in  the  execution  of  works  of  a  very  high  order, 
and  the  imitation  of  intricate  and  delicate  patterns,  printing 
in  colors  requires  no  addition  to  the  ordinary  accomplishment 
of  printing,  other  than  considerable  ingenuity  and  a  little 
practice  in  preparing  the  colors.  The  latter  may,  it  is  true, 
be  purchased  of  the  ink-maker,  prepared  for  use ;  but  the 
charge  for  them  is  enormous,  and  they  require  constant  replace- 
ment, whilst  it  is  not  possible  to  have  on  hand  every  variety 
of  tint.  By  the  purchase  of  the  most  simple  materials  from 
the  oil-shop,  the  ingenious  printer  has  at  his  hand  every  color 
that  fancy  can  require,  at  the  most  moderate  cost,  without 
waste  or  delay.  The  appliances  are  few  and  cheap :  a  muller, 
•a  marble  slab,  and  the  pallet-knife  ;  the  materials,  a  can  of 
printers'  varnish,  to  be  purchased  of  the  ink-maker,  which 
will  keep  any  length  of  time,  and  the  raw  colors  hereafter 
given,  which  may  be  purchased  from  time  to  time;  care, 
however,  being  taken  that  they  are  of  the  best  quality,  or 
they  will  fade  and  turn  rusty  in  a  short  time,  and  be  a  de- 
formity instead  of  an  ornament  to  the  work. 

Useful  tints  of  red  may  be  prepared  of  orange  lead,  ver- 
milion, burnt  sienna,  Venetian  red,  Indian  red,  and  lake. 
Vermilion  is  the  most  brilliant  of  these  reds ;  but  its  beauty 
depends  very  much  upon  the  particular  parcel  used.     The 


120  Five  Black  Arts. 

pale  vermilion  is  best  for  a  bright  tint,  as  the  dark,  when 
mixed  with  the  varnish,  produces  a  dull  red.  Orange  lead 
and  vermilion  ground  together  produces  a  very  bright  tint, 
which  is  more  permanent  than  vermilion  alone. 

Yellows  are  prepared  with  yellow  ocher,  gamboge,  and 
chromate  of  lead.  Of  these,  the  brightest  is  the  chrome ; 
yellow  ocher,  when  mixed  with  the  varnish,  produces  a  very 
dull  tint. 

Blues  are  made  from  indigo,  Prussian  blue,  and  Antwerp 
blue.  Of  these,  indigo  is  exceedingly  dark,  and  not  very 
easily  lightened.  Prussian  blue  is  a  very  useful  color ;  Ant- 
werp blue  is  very  light. 

Greens  may  be  produced  from  a  mixture  of  any  of  the 
blues  and  yellows,  as  gamboge  and  Prussian  blue,  chromate 
of  lead  and  Prussian  blue.  These  may  be  mixed  in  any 
proportions  until  the  required  tint  is  produced  ;  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  varnish  has  a  considerable  yellow 
tinge,  and  will  produce  a  decided  effect  upon  the  mixture. 
With  a  slight  portion  of  Antwerp  blue  it  will,  without  the 
mixture  of  any  of  the  yellows,  produce  a  decidedly  greenish 
tinge. 

Purples  of  any  degree  of  richness  are  made  by  judiciously 
mixing  reds  and  blues. 

Ssepia  produces  a  nice  brown  tint,  burnt  umber  a  very  hot 
brown,  raw  umber  a  much  lighter  brown,  bister  a  brighter 
still.  Neutral  tints  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  Prussian 
blue,  lake,  and  gamboge.  In  fact,  every  pigment  that 
painters  use  can  also  be  used  in  printing,  avoiding,  as  much 
as  possible,  all  heavy  colors.  In  truth,  if  the  printer  is 
desirous  of  imitating  any  particular  color,  or  of  producing 
any  particular  tint,  he  cannot  do  better  than  consult  the 
nearest  artist  in  oil  or  water  colors  (oil  in  preference),  or  in 
default  of  that,  the  neighboring  house-painter. 

The  necessary  colors  having  been  procured,  the  method  of 
preparing  them  is  very  simple.  Each  must  first  be  well 
ground  by  the  muller  upon  the  slab,  even  although  they  may 
have  been  purchased  well  powdered.  The  color  should  then 
be  well  mixed  with  the  pallet-knife  vdth  the  varnish,  until 
the  pigment  has  attained  the  required  consistency,  which  will 
vary  with  the  quality  of  the  work  to  be  executed ;  for  if  it 
be  a  posting-bill  or  coarse  job,  the  ink  should  be  very  thin^ 


Printing — In  Colors.  121 

and  consequently  a  much  larger  proportion  of  varnish  should 
be  used.  If,  however,  the  work  be  a  wood-cut,  or  in  small 
type,  the  pigment  should  be  made  as  thick  as  possible.  If 
the  color  required  be  a  compound,  the  predominant  tint 
should  be  first  mixed  with  the  varnish,  and  the  lighter  tint 
added  in  small  quantities,  until  the  exact  shade  required  be 
produced.  Thus,  if  the  color  be  a  dark  green,  the  blue 
should  be  mixed  up  first,  and  the  yellow  added  ;  but  if  it  be 
a  very  light  green,  then  the  yellow  should  be  first  applied, 
and  the  blue  added.  If  the  tint  desired  be  exceedingly  light, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  quantity  of  raw  material  to  be 
employed  will  not  make  the  mixture  sufficiently  thick  to  be 
applied  to  the  type  or  wood-block :  in  this  case  whitening  is 
added  to  thin  colors,  and  dry  white-lead  to  the  heavier,  in 
considerable  quantities,  which  must  be  adjusted  in  the  course 
of  mixing.  To  insure  thorough  combination,  the  mixture 
should  be  scraped  into  a  corner  of  the  slab,  and*a  very  small 
portion  of  it  spread  with  the  pallet-knife,  and  well  ground 
with  the  muller  until  no  specks  or  lumps  appear,  then  scraped 
up  and  placed  in  another  corner.  This  should  especially  be 
done  when  white-lead  is  used,  as  it  will  be  found  that  every 
little  lump  when  crushed  will  produce  a  white  streak  upon 
the  slab.  If  this  be  not  carefully  done,  independently  of  its 
tendency  to  clog  the  type,  it  will  very  materially  alter  the 
tint.  When  the  pigment  seems  sufficiently  mixed,  it  is  better 
to  bray  it  out  with  the  muller  instead  of  the  usual  brayer,  and 
grind  again  each  particular  portion  immediately  before  it  is  used. 
Colors  may  be  worked  either  with  a  ball  or  a  roller.  If  the 
job  be  large  and  coarse,  and  the  ink  consequently  thin,  the 
roller  will  answer  every  purpose ;  but  if  it  be  small,  and 
requiring  much  nicety  in  the  manipulation,  decidedly  with  a 
ball ;  but  in  either  case  the  ink  should  be  well  distributed, 
and  the  form  well  beaten  or  rolled.  When  two  or  more 
colors  are  employed,  they  must  be  worked  at  as  many  differ- 
ent times.  In  this  case  extreme  nicety  in  the  register  and 
justification  is  required,  in  order  that  every  color  may  fall  in 
its  just  place,  without  overlaying  any  other  tint  employed  in  the 
print.  This  would  be  a  great  dis-sight  in  any  case,  but  most 
especially  where  the  combination  of  colors  would  produce  a 
third ;  as,  for  instance,  if  any  part  of  a  blue  line  should 
unfortunately  fall  upon  a  yellow,  a  green  outline  would  be 


122  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  result.  The  simplest  way  to  guard  against  this  is  to  have 
the  wood-blocks  all  cut  to  precisely  the  same  size,  with  the 
print  in  the  proper  place  upon  each ;  when,  therefore,  the 
first  color  has  been  worked,  the  form  is  unlocked,  the  block 
taken  out,  and  the  second  block  inserted ;  it  then  falls  at 
once  into  its  proper  position.  If  the  form  consist  of  type, 
each  line  should  be  carefully  composed  in  its  proper  body ; 
that  is,  if  three  colors  be  employed  for  as  many  different 
lines  in  pica y  small  pica,  and  long  primer,  the  one  to  be  first 
worked  should  be  composed  in  pica  letters,  the  other  lines  in 
small  pica  and  long  primer  quadrats.  When  the  second  line 
is  to  be  worked,  its  quadrats  should  be  taken  out  and  letters 
inserted,  while  the  type  of  the  first  line  should  be  removed 
and  quadrats  substituted ;  and  so  of  the  third  line.  The 
points  on  the  tympan  must  never  be  moved.  It  is  clear, 
therefore,  that  if  the  paper  be  placed  upon  the  same  point- 
holes  as  before,  and  if  the  form  has  never  been  moved,  the 
new  line  cannot  fail  to  fall  in  its  proper  place.  In  these  cases 
the  paper  must  never  be  suffered  to  dry ;  indeed  the  sooner 
each  color  succeeds  the  other  the  better.  If  it  be  covered 
with  a  wet  blanket,  and  the  edges  well  sprinkled,  the  danger 
will  be  little  ;  but  if  it  should  dry  and  shrink  in  the  slightest 
degree,  it  will  be  impossible  to  obtain  register.  For  printing 
red-letter  days  in  almanacs  and  the  rubrics  in  prayer-books 
(an  almost  extinct  practice),  an  especial  type  is  used  called 
rubrical ;  it  is  cast  about  an  m  higher  than  ordinary  type. 
The  black  is  first  worked,  quadrats  having  been  inserted  in 
the  places  of  the  red-letter,  which  are  subsequently  with- 
drawn and  the  rubrical  type  inserted.  But  as,  in  so  small 
an  insertion  in  so  large  a  body  this  process  does  not  attain 
any  very  good  register,  and  is  expensive  withal,  the  red-letter 
days  have  been  abandoned,  and  some  other  distinguishing 
type  (generally  old  English  or  black)  has  been  substituted, 
which  sufficiently  indicates  the  day.  It  would  not  be  possi- 
ble here  to  give  sufficient  instructions  to  enable  the  printer  to 
execute  landscapes,  portraits,  and  other  delicate  subjects,  in 
various  colors  and  shades.  The  difference  between  this  and 
other  color-printing  consists  mainly  in  the  superior  individual 
skill  and  ingenuity  of  the  artist,  the  excellence  and  truth  of 
his  engravings,  and  the  superiority  of  his  appliances.  In 
truth,  before  the  printer  can  produce  any  great  effect,  he 


Printing — In  Colors.  123 

must  be  excellently  qualified  as  a  painter,  -which  it  is  not  the 
province  of  an  article  on  printing  to  teach.  It  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  state  that  the  lighter  and  more  extensive  tints,  and 
especially  those  in  which  transparent  colors  are  used,  are 
worked  first ;  that  the  color  is  gradually  deepened  by  success- 
ive blocks  until  the  required  efiects  are  produced  ;  and  that 
the  outline  is  printed  last,  which  has  the  effect  of  giving 
sharpness  and  finish  to  the  design. 

The  curious  reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  Savage's  beautiful 
book  on  Decorative  Printing,  and  to  the  many  admirable 
productions  of  Mr.  Baxter  and  Mr.  Vizetelly.  Nor  should 
the  accurate  work  and  beautiful  colors  of  Mr.  Delarue's 
playing-cards  be  pTissed  over  without  notice.  To  Mr.  Dela- 
rue,  indeed,  the  revival  of  color-printing  in  England  as  a 
practical  art  is  greatly  due. 

The  lottery  system  and  the  stamp  duties  gave  extensive 
employment  to  the  color-printer,  and  also  gave  occasion  to  a 
process  which  is  denominated  "  compound  plate-printing." 
The  effects  are  produced  by  an  ingenious  system  of  mechan- 
ism, by  which  several  plates  are  made  to  separate  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  the  colors,  and  to  combine  with  perfect  ac- 
curacy, for  the  purpose  of  transferring  these  colors  to  the 
paper  by  a  single  impression.  This  process  is  in  daily  use 
at  the  stamp  and  excise  oflSces,  and  the  most  familiar  exam- 
ples are  to  be  seen  in  the  intricate  patterns  printed  on  the 
labels  of  reams  of  paper,  or  those  of  patent  medicines.  The 
printing  is  effected  by  the  cylinder  printing-machine  with  the 
greatest  rapidity. 

There  is  no  difiiculty  in  printing  in  gold ;  it  is  within  the 
power  of  any  typographer.  The  type  is  composed  and  made 
ready  at  press  in  the  usual  manner.  Take  the  best  printer's 
varnish,  grind  it  to  a  thick  consistency  with  burnt  sienna  or 
brown  umber ;  reduce  this  with  gold-size,  the  same  as  that 
used  by  gilders  and  japanners.  The  first  admixture  is  ne- 
cessary because  it  has  been  found  that  the  umber  will  not 
combine  with  the  size.  The  type  is  then  rolled  with  this 
compound  in  the  same  manner  that  ordinary  ink  is  applied, 
and  the  impression  is  taken  upon  the  paper.  Leaf-gold  is 
then  laid  over  it  with  a  piece  of  cotton-wool,  and  pressed 
lightly  upon  it.  When  the  varnish  has  had  time  to  set, 
a  piece   of   cotton-wool   is  rubbed  steadily  over   the   part 


124  Five  Black  Arts. 

printed,  and  the  superfluous  leaf  is  thereby  removed,  leav- 
ing the  gold  adhering  to  the  varnish.  The  print  should  then 
be  passed  between  steel  rollers,  or  hot-pressed — care  being 
taken  in  the  latter  process  that  the  plates  be  not  too  hot,  or 
a  dull  drossy  surface  will  be  produced.  The  sharpness  of 
the  print  will  vary  with  the  judgment  of  the  printer  in  the 
quantity  of  sizing  applied  to  the  type ;  for  if  the  press-work 
be  bad,  the  print  will  be  bad  also.  For  inferior  gold-printing 
bronze-powder  is  extensively  used.  For  this  the  varnish  is 
made  very  much  thicker  than  for  gold  ;  the  method  of  print- 
ing is  the  same.  After  the  impression  has  been  given,  the 
powder  is  brushed  over  the  print,  and  adheres  thereto,  whilst 
the  superfluity  is  easily  removed.  In  printing  the  golden 
"  Coronation  Sun"  with  this  powder,  a  very  distressing  dis- 
ease arose, — the  hair  became  perfectly  green,  and  the  men 
were  very  seriously  affected ;  great  care  should  therefore  be  ta- 
ken that  particles  of  the  powder  be  not  allowed  to  fly  about  the 
room.  Dutch  gold  cannot  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  gold-leaf. 
When  all  these  appliances  cannot  readily  be  obtained,  very 
fair  gold-printing  may  be  produced  by  the  following  process  : 
Let  the  surface  of  the  type  be  heated  by  any  convenient 
means — as  by  laying  upon  it  for  a  space  a  heated  metal  plate 
— and  then  cover  it  carefully  with  leaf-gold  by  a  ball  of  cot- 
ton-wool. Having  carefully  sifted  dry  white-of-egg  or  resin, 
finely  pulverized,  over  the  surface  of  the  paper,  place  it  on 
the  tympan,  and  bring  it  gently  down  upon  the  type.  Dwell 
upon  the  pull.  The  leaf-gold  will  be  found  perfectly  adher- 
ent to  the  impression  on  the  paper,  and  the  superfluous  part 
may  be  brushed  off*.  The  sheet,  after  drying,  should  then  be 
hot-pressed.  Some  observation  is  required  to  ascertain  the 
proper  heat  to  be  given  to  the  type :  if  it  be  insufficient,  the 
gold  transfer  will  be  imperfect  and  the  tint  light;  if  too  great 
(of  which  there  should  be  no  danger)  the  color  will  be  dull, 

BANK-NOTE  PRINTING. 

The  Bank  of  England  notes  were  formerly  printed  from 
steel-plates ;  but  in  1853  the  Bank  adopted  the  surface  or 
letter-press  mode  of  printing.  The  plates  are  produced  by 
the  electrotype  process.  An  original  is  first  engraved  in 
metal  in  relief.     This  original  is  subjected  to  the  galvano- 


Printing — Bank-Note.  125 

plastic  process,  by  which  a  matrix  is  obtained,  and  from  this 
matrix  a  second  cast  is  obtained  in  relief,  a  i^erfect  facsimile 
of  the  original  engraved  plate.  From  this  plate  the  bank- 
notes are  printed.  The  metal  of  which  these  plates  are 
formed  is  exceedingly  hard,  frequently  yielding  nearly  one 
million  impressions  without  being  worn  out.  The  original 
engraving  is  never  used  for  printing,  but  only  for  the  pro- 
duction of  matrices ;  consequently  it  always  remains  unim- 
paired, and  thus  perfect  identity  is  maintained  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  notes. 

The  notes  are  printed  at  platen-machines  possessing  great 
advantages  over  the  ordinary  printing-machines,  more  partic- 
ularly in  the  distribution  of  the  ink.  Three  machines  are 
employed,  two  of  which  were  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Na- 
pier &  Sons,  and  the  other  by  Messrs.  Hopkinson  &  Cope. 
A  tell-tale,  or  register,  is  attached  to  each  machine,  which 
marks  the  number  of  impressions.  These  registers  are  set 
by  a  clerk  before  the  printing  commences,  and  are  checked 
by  him  at  the  close  of  the  day,  when  the  printer  must  ac- 
count for  (either  in  bank-notes  or  "  spoils")  the  number  of 
impressions  registered  by  the  dial.  The  notes  are  printed 
upon  dry  paper,  a  process  which  has  been  very  greatly  ac- 
celerated by  the  recent  improvements  introduced  into  the  ink 
by  Mr.  Winstone,  who  manufactures  for  the  bank. 

The  number  and  dates  of  the  bank-notes  are  added  in  an 
after-printing.  This  is  effected  at  Messrs.  Napier  &  Sons' 
cylinder  machines :  a  very  ingenious  mechanism  being  at- 
tached to  these  machines  which  makes  it  impossible  to  com- 
mit any  fraud  by  printing  two  notes  of  the  same  number. 
The  apparatus  consists  of  a  series  of  brass  discs,  of  which 
the  rim  is  divided  by  channels  into  projecting  compartments, 
each  containing  a  figure.  The  numbers  1  to  9  having  been 
printed  in  the  course  of  the  revolution  of  the  first  disc,  the 
second  disc  then  presents  the  figure  1,  which,  by  combining 
with  the  0  of  the  first  disc,  the  number  10  is  formed.  The 
second  disc  now  remains  stationary  until,  in  the  course  of  the 
revolution  of  the  first  disc,  the  numbers  1  to  19  have  been 
printed,  when  it  presents  the  figure  2,  and  does  not  again 
move  until  another  revolution  of  the  first  disc  completes  the 
numbers  20  to  29.  Thus  the  two  discs  proceed  until  99 
notes  have  been  numbered,  when  the  third  disc  comes  into 


126  Five  Black  Arts. 

operation,  and  with  the  first  two,  produces  100,  consequently 
the  first  disc  performs  one  hundred  revolutions  to  ten  of  the 
second  and  one  of  the  third.  The  notes  may  be  numbered 
indefinitely  by  this  process,  without  the  possibility  of  error, 
the  machine,  meanwhile,  being  its  own  check. 

PRINTING-MACHINES. 

As  long  as  the  thirst  of  literature  was  confined  to  books 
and  a  few  periodicals  of  limited  sale  and  size,  the  ordinary 
printing-presses  sufficed  to  supply  the  demand :  nor  was  it 
discovered  that  any  further  speed  was  requisite,  until  the  in- 
creased facility  of  conveyance,  and  the  important  events  at 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  created  a  demand  for  news 
which  the  utmost  exertions  of  the  printers  were  unable  to 
supply  ;  for  the  attempt  to  increase  the  speed  by  the  compo- 
sition of  two  distinct  forms  of  type  would  avail  little,  so  long 
as  the  presses  could  turn  out  only  250  or  300  impressions 
each  per  hour.  Accordingly  for  this  branch  of  the  art  were 
the  first  machines  projected.  Many  schemes  were  proposed 
for  accelerating  the  movements  of  the  press  ;  but  the  first  at- 
tempts at  any  thing  like  the  machine  afterward  introduced 
were  made  by  William  Nicholson,  a  gentleman  connected  with 
periodical  literature,  who  took  out  a  patent  about  1790  for  a 
printing-machine,  of  which  the  chief  points  were  the  follow- 
ing :  The  type  being  rubbed  or  scraped  narrower  toward 
the  bottom,  was  to  be  fixed  upon  a  cylinder,  in  order,  as  it 
were,  to  radiate  from  the  center  of  it.  This  cylinder,  with 
its  type,  was  to  revolve  in  gear  with  another  cylinder  cov- 
ered with  soft  leather  (the  impression-cylinder) ;  and  the 
type  received  its  ink  from  another  cylinder,  to  which  inking 
apparatus  was  applied.  The  paper  was  impressed  by  passing 
between  the  type  and  impression- cylinders.  Most  of  these 
plans  were,  when  modified,  adopted  by  after-constructors. 
This  machine  was  never  brought  into  use. 

Konig,  an  ingenious  German,  was  the  next  who  under- 
took to  construct  a  machine ;  and  having  made  considerable 
advance  in  his  plans,  obtained  a  contract  with  Mr.  Walters, 
the  proprietor  of  The  London  Times  newspaper,  for  manu- 
facturing two  for  that  journal.  His  machine  was  successful, 
and  the  number  for  the  28th  November,  1814,  was  worked 


I 


Printing — Machines.  127 


by  it  at  the  rate  of  1100  impressions  per  hour.  In  this 
Nicholson's  plan  was  so  far  altered,  that  the  ordinary  type 
was  used  and  laid  upon  a  flat  surface,  and  the  impression  was 
given  by  the  form  passing  under  a  cylinder  of  great  size. 
Konig  afterward  invented  a  machine  in  which  the  sheet  was 
printed  on  both  sides  before  it  left  the  machine ;  but  his  ar- 
rangements for  the  equal  distribution  of  the  ink  were  so  com- 
plicated and  clumsy  (consisting  of  not  less  than  forty  wheels) 
and  the  works  of  every  part  of  the  machine  so  intricate, 
that  it  never  came  into  practical  use. 

The  first  really  useful  machine  was  constructed  by  Messrs. 
Applegath  and  Cowper,  being  an  extensive  modification  of 
that  of  Konig ;  its  principal  improvement  consisting  in  the 
application  of  two  drums  between  the  impression-cylinders, 
one  of  which  reverses  the  sheet,  and  the  other  secures  the 
register,  by  retaining  it,  after  the  impression  of  the  first  form, 
just  so  long  that  it  may  pass  on  to  the  second  cylinder  in  ex- 
act time  to  be  impressed  thereby  upon  the  second  form ;  and 
of  the  distribution  of  the  ink  upon  a  plane  surface,  instead 
of  by  a  number  of  rollers,  by  which  Konig's  complicated  ma- 
chinery was  got  rid  of.  These  machines,  with  numerous 
modifications,  according  to  the  plans  of  different  makers,  are 
now  in  general  use. 

For  newspapers,  machines  are  generally  made  to  work  but 
one  side  at  a  time.  It  is  manifest  that  a  machine  will  work 
a  much  greater  number  (more  than  double)  of  one  form  than 
of  two,  and  that  the  machinery  will  be  lighter  and  less  expen- 
sive, and  of  course  require  less  motive  power.  One  form, 
therefore,  of  a  newspaper,  containing  advertisements  and  the 
less  important  matter,  is  worked  at  leisure ;  and  the  second 
form,  containing  the  leading  article,  important  news,  and 
other  matter  of  consequence,  is  reserved  until  the  last  mo- 
ment, and  is  then  thrown  off  with  immense  rapidity.  For 
the  usual  description  of  book-work,  machines  (perfecting- 
machines)  are  constructed  to  work  both  forms  at  a  time.  In 
these,  perfect  register,  and  the  exact  and  even  distribu- 
tion of  the  ink,  are  of  the  greatest  consequence,  and  such 
immense  rapidity  is  not  necessary.  These  machines,  there- 
fore, differ  very  much  in  construction,  though  not  in  princi- 
ple, from  those  used  for  newspapers. 

The  machine  constructed  by  Messrs.  Applegath  and  Cow- 


128  Five  Black  Arts. 

per  in  1827  for  The  Times,  two  of  which  are  still  used  for 
printing  the  supplements  and  advertising  pages,  has  four  im- 
pression-cylinders, which  are  so  arranged  that  two  are  in 
contact  with  the  type  as  the  table  passes  to  the  right,  and 
two  as  it  passes  to  the  left.  It  will  print  from  4000  to  5000 
impressions  per  hour. 

One  of  the  principal  impediments  to  great  speed  in  this 
form  of  printing-machines  is  the  necessity  for  a  reciprocating 
motion  in  the  type,  table,  and  inking-table, — a  great  weight, 
the  vis  motus  of  which  has  to  be  neutralized,  and  then  the 
vis  inertice  overcome,  at  each  end  of  the  traverse.  This  not 
only  occasions  a  great  waste  of  motive  power,  but  also  causes 
breakages  and  serious  accidents.  Mr.  Applegath,  finding 
these  and  other  difficulties  insuperable,  abandoned  the  prin- 
ciple of  placing  the  type  on  a  plane  table  and  the  reciproca- 
ting motion,  and  constructed  a  machine  in  which  the  type  is 
placed  on  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  of  large  dimensions, 
which  revolves  on  a  vertical  axis,  with  a  continuous  rota- 
tory motion.  The  Times  has  the  credit  of  being  first  in 
adopting  this  great  improvement  in  newspaper  printing. 

The  following  is  a  careful  description  of  this  vast  and  com- 
plicated piece  of  machinery : 

In  the  center  of  the  machine  is  a  vertical  cylinder  or 
drum,  5  feet  4  inches  in  diameter.  In  contact  with  it,  and 
revolving  each  on  its  own  vertical  axis,  are  eight  impression- 
cylinders,  13  inches  in  diameter,  each  of  which  has  a  set  of 
inking-roUers  working  in  advance  of  it.  The  cylinders 
move  with  the  same  velocity  as  the  surface  of  the  drum. 
The  columns  of  type  are  placed  in  a  kind  of  iron  galley,  or 
turtle,  curved  to  fit  the  surface  of  the  drum„  The  outer  sur- 
face of  these  galleys  is  not  formed  into  a  segment  of  a  circle, 
but  into  facets,  each  the  width  of  a  column ;  the  wedge- 
shaped  interval,  w^hich  is  left  between  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  types  of  every  two  adjoining  columns,  is  compensated  by 
column-rules,  made  thicker  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom  in 
the  same  proportion.  The  middle  column-rule  is  fixed.  The 
columns  are  locked  up  in  the  galleys  by  means  of  screws,  and 
the  column-rules  press  the  types  together  like  key-stones  in 
an  arch.  The  fixed  rule  in  the  center  prevents  the  types 
from  rising.  The  galleys  are  then  screwed  on  to  the  drum,  the 
columns  vertical.     The  outer  face  of  the  forms  is  now,  it  must 


PRINTING.  ] 


[  Plaie  13. 


Printing — Machines.  129 

be  remembered,  a  series  of  facets,  sides  as  it  were  of  a  poly- 
gon ;  the  surfaces  of  the  impression-cylinders  are  made  to 
conform  to  these  facets,  with  suflScient  accuracy,  by  paper 
overlays.  When  stereotype  plates  are  used,  they  are  cast  by 
Dellagana's  process,  in  accurate  segments  of  a  circle,  and  the 
overlaying  is  unnecessary.  The  forms  of  types  do  not,  of 
course,  occupy  the  whole  circumference  of  the  central  drum  : 
a  large  part  of  the  remainder  is  made  the  inking-table.  The 
ink-box,  which  is  also  vertical,  supplies  ink  to  a  ductor-roller, 
which  works  between  two  straight  edges.  As  the  drum  re- 
volves, a  portion  of  ink  is  taken  from  the  ductor  by  two  vi- 
brating rollers,  and  distributed  on  to  the  inking-table.  The 
inking-table  precedes  the  type-forms,  and  as  it  passes  the 
inking  rollers  attached  to  each  impression-cylinder  come 
into  contact  with  it,  and  receive  ink  from  its  surface.  The 
type-forms,  following  next,  come  into  contact  with  these  ink- 
ing-rollers,  and  take  from  them  the  ink  they  have  just  re- 
ceived. The  inking-table  passes  under  the  impression-cylin- 
ders without  touching  them ;  but  the  type  is  brought  into 
contact  with  the  paper  upon  them,  and  the  impression  is  given. 
Therefore,  at  every  revolution  of  the  drum,  the  type  is  inked 
eight  times,  comes  into  contact  with  eight  impression-cylin- 
ders, and  prints  eight  sheets  of  paper. 

It  is  most  difficult  to  convey,  by  any  verbal  description, 
the  singularly  ingenious  mechanism  by  which  the  sheets  of 
paper  are  conveyed  to  and  around  the  impression-cylinders. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  sheets  are  necessarily  laid 
on  the  feeding-table  horizontally^  and  that  they  pass  around 
the  cylinder  vertically.  The  task  will  be  rendered  some- 
what simpler  by  reminding  the  reader  that  each  impression- 
cylinder  is  a  complete  machine  within  itself,  acting  with  the 
drum,  but  independent  of  the  other  cylinders  ;  and  that,  as 
each  has  its  own  system  of  inking-rollers,  so  each  has  its  own 
system  of  feeding-drums  and  tapes.  The  white  paper  is  laid  on 
the  feeding-table  at  the  top ;  each  sheet  is  placed  by  the 
layer-on  to  the  center  of  a  feeding-drum.  At  the  right 
moment,  the  sheet  is  advanced  by  finger-rollers  until  its 
forward  edge  is  brought  between  two  small  rollers,  each  con- 
nected with  a  series  of  endless  tapes,  between  which  it  is 
passed  vertically  downward.  At  the  right  moment  its  further 
progress  is  arrested  by  two  vertical  slips  of  wood  called 
9 


I. 


130  Five  Black  Arts. 

"  stoppers,"  which  start  forward  and  press  the  sheet  against 
two  fixed  stoppers ;  and,  at  the  same  moment,  the  two  rollers 
and  their  tapes  separate,  and  leave  the  sheet  extended  verti- 
cally between  the  two  pairs  of  stoppers.  Observe  that,  up 
to  this  moment,  the  travel  of  the  sheet  has  been  vertically 
downward,  and  that  its  plane  surface  is  part  of  a  radius 
from  the  axis  of  the  central  drum.  The  problem  now  to  be 
solved  is,  to  give  it  a  horizontal  movement  toward  the  center, 
preserving  its  vertical  position.  The  instant  the  sheet  is 
arrested  vertically  between  the  stoppers,  its  top  edge  is 
caught  by  two  pairs  of  small  finger  or  susj^ending  rollers  ;  at 
the  same  instant  the  stoppers  separate,  and  the  sheet  is  sus- 
pended for  a  moment  between  these  rollers ;  a  slight  inward 
motion  is  then  given  to  the  suspenders,  sufiicient  to  bring  the 
inner  edge  of  the  sheet  into  the  mouth  of  two  sets  of  hori- 
zontal tapes,  by  which  it  is  carried  around  the  impression- 
cylinder  and  printed.  As  the  sheet,  after  being  printed, 
issues  from  the  horizontal  tapes,  it  is  delivered  to  other  sets, 
by  which  it  is  conveyed  outward,  under  the  laying-on  board  ; 
arrived  at  the  proper  point,  it  is  again  caught  at  the  top  edge 
between  suspending  rollers,  the  tapes  separate,  and  it  hangs 
for  a  moment ;  when  the  taker-ofi",  who  sits  below  the  layer- 
on,  releases  it  by  a  slight  jerk,,  and  lays  it  on  his  board. 

No  description  can  give  any  adequate  idea  of  the  scene 
presented  by  one  of  these  machines  in  full  work, — the  maze 
of  wheels  and  rollers,  the  intricate  lines  of  swift-moving 
tapes,  the  flight  of  sheets,  and  the  din  of  machinery.  The 
central  drum  moves  at  the  rate  of  six  feet  per  second,  or  one 
revolution  in  three  seconds ;  the  impression- cylinders  make 
five  revolutions  in  the  same  time.  The  layer-on  delivers  two 
sheets  every  five  seconds,  consequently,  sixteen  sheets  are 
printed  in  that  brief  space.  The  diameter  of  an  eight-feeder, 
including  the  galleries  for  the  layers-on,  is  twenty-five  feet. 
The  Times  employs  two  of  these  eight-cylinder  machines, 
each  of  which  averages  12,000  impressions  per  hour ;  and 
one  nine-cylinder,  which  prints  16,000. 

These  vast  machines,  however,  are  only  useful  when  the 
necessity  of  working  a  very  large  number  with  the  utmost 
rapidity  overrides  all  considerations  of  cost  and  space.  An 
excellent  machine,  in  which  considerable  speed  is  obtained 
with  comparative  economy  of  expense  and  room,  the  inven- 


Printing — Machines. 


131 


I 


tion  of  Messrs.  Hoe  of  New  York,  has  been  lately  used  for 
newspapers  and  periodicals  of  long  numbers.  In  principle, 
it  does  not  differ  from  Applegath's  vertical,  inasmuch  as  the 
type  is  fixed  upon  a  central  cylinder  or  drum,  which  has  a  con- 
tinuous rotatory  motion,  in  contact  with  impression-cylinders 
set  around  it.  The  chief  difference  is,  that  the  drum  and 
impression-cylinders  are  not  vertical,  but  horizontal.  The 
machines  are  manufactured  of  different  sizes,  according  to 
the  number  of  impression-cylinders  required.  Those  more 
generally  made  have  six  cylinders,  some  have  eight,  and  The 
Times  has  recently  constructed  one  with  ten.  This  last 
machine  is  calculated  to  produce  20,000  impressions  per 
hour.  The  following  is  a  description  of  a  six-cylinder  ma- 
chine : 

A  horizontal  central  cylinder  is  mounted  on  a  shaft  with 
appropriate  bearings,  and  around  it,  arrayed  at  proper  dis- 
tances, are  six  horizontal  impression-cylinders.  The  mov- 
able types  or  stereo-casts  are  secured  on  a  portion  of  the 
central  cylinder,  about  a  quarter  of  its  circumference,  and 
compensated  by  a  balance-weight  on  the  opposite  side ;  the 
remainder  of  the  cylinder  is  used  as  a  distributing-table  for 
the  ink.  This  portion  of  the  cylinder  is  lower  than  the  face 
of  the  type,  in  order  that  it  may  pass  under  the  impression- 
cylinders  without  being  touched  by  them.  The  ink  is  con- 
tained in  an  ink-box  placed  beneath  the  central  cylinder, 
and  supplies  the  ink  to  the  ductor-roller,  from  which  it  is 
transferred  by  a  vibrating  distributing-roller  to  the  distribu- 
ting-table. The  ductor-roller  receives  a  slow  and  continuous 
rotary  motion,  so  that  it  always  presents  a  uniform  line  of 
ink  to  the  vibrating  roller.  The  machine  being  put  in  mo- 
tion, the  form  of  type  on  the  central  cylinder  is  brought  into 
contact  with  each  of  the  six  impression-cylinders  in  succes- 
sion ;  and  six  sheets  of  paper,  which  have  been  introduced, 
one  to  each  impression-cylinder,  are  printed  in  one  revolu- 
tion of  the  central  cylinder.  For  each  impression-cylinder 
there  are  two  inking-roUers,  which  roll  over  the  distributing 
surface  and  take  a  supply  of  ink ;  at  the  proper  time  they 
rise,  pass  over  the  type,  and  then  fall  on  to  the  distributing 
surface. 

Each  page  is  locked  up  upon  a  detached  segment  of  the 
large  cylinder  called  a  "  turtle,''  which  constitutes  the  bed 


132  Five  Black  Arts. 

and  chase.  The  column-rules,  like  those  for  the  vertical 
machine,  are  wedge-shaped,  and  are  held  down  to  the  turtle 
by  tongues  projecting  at  intervals  along  their  length,  and 
sliding  in  rebated  grooves  cut  crosswise  in  the  face  of  the 
turtle,  the  space  in  the  grooves  between  the  column-rules 
being  filled  with  sliding  blocks  of  metal,  accurately  fitted, 
the  outer  surface  level  with  the  surface  of  the  turtle,  the 
ends  next  the  column-rules  being  cut  away  underneath  to 
receive  a  projection  in  the  sides  of  the  tongues.  The  head 
and  cross  rules  are  segments  of  a  circle  of  the  same  curv- 
ature as  the  turtle.  The  types  are  secured  by  screws  and 
wedges. 

Six  persons,  one  to  each  impression-cylinder,  are  required 
to  supply  the  paper, — three  on  each  side  of  the  machine. 
The  paper  is  conveyed  from  the  laying-on  board  to  the  im- 
pression-cylinders by  gripers.  The  sheets  when  printed  are 
carried  by  tapes  to  six  self-acting  fly-frames,  which  lay  them 
regularly  in  piles. 

Another  American,  M.  S.  Beach,  has  improved  upon 
Hoe*s  machine,  by  converting  it  into  a  perfecting-machine. 
His  improvement  consists  in  placing  the  second  form  upon 
the  central  type-drum,  superseding  the  necessity  for  the 
balance-weight :  the  sheet,  after  being  printed  on  one  side, 
is  immediately  drawn  back  and  printed  on  the  other  side 
from  the  second  form,  without  checking  or  changing  the 
uniform  revolution  of  the  cylinder ;  and  thus  the  work  done 
by  it  is  doubled.  The  diameter  of  the  type-drum  in  this 
machine,  which  is  calculated  for  eight  impression-cylinders, 
i3  only  four  feet ;  the  type  has  therefore  to  travel  a  less  dis- 
tance in  one  revolution  of  the  drum ;  and  the  consequence 
is,  that  in  traveling  the  same  distance  in  this  machine,  and  at 
the  same  speed,  22,000  double  impressions  would  be  produced 
in  an  hour.     This  account  is  taken  from  the  New  York  Sun, 

A  horizontal  cylinder-machine,  on  the  same  system  as 
Hoe's,  made  by  Middleton,  capable  of  printing  20,000  im- 
pressions per  hour,  is  now  used  for  printing  The  London  blam- 
ing Herald.  The  type  is  secured  on  the  central  cylinder,  2J 
feet  in  diameter,  in  the  same  way  as  in  The  Times  vertical 
machine  ;  the  ink  is  supplied  from  a  ductor  below  the  type-cyl- 
inder, and  distributed  upon  an  inking-table  attached  to  the 
type-cylinder,  to  which  a  slight  lateral  motion  is  communi- 


Printing — Machines.  133 

cated  by  two  straps,  one  on  each  side  of  the  machine.  There 
are  five  impression-cylinders  at  equal  distances  around  the 
central  cylinder,  to  which  the  paper  is  supplied  from  ten 
feeders,  on  the  same  principle  as  in  the  other  horizontal  ma- 
chines, four  on  one  end  of  the  machine  and  six  on  the  other; 
the  printed  sheets  are  delivered  on  to  five  taking-off  boards, 
one  to  each  two  feeders,  and  received  by  five  lads.  The 
machine  is  26d  feet  long,  5  feet  wide,  and  ITs  high. 

The  machines  of  Mr.  Napier,  intended  for  book-work,  are 
in  good  repute.  They  have  the  advantage  of  being  easily 
worked  by  two  men,  thus  rendering  steam-power  unnecessary. 
They  stand  in  a  very  small  compass,  and  do  beautiful  work. 
As  far  as  regards  motion  and  impression,  they  do  not  greatly 
vary  from  the  cylinder  machines  already  described ;  but  in 
the  method  of  conveying  the  paper,  obtaining  register,  and 
inking,  they  are  altogether  different.  The  paper  is  laid  to  a 
certain  gauge,  when,  in  the  revolution  of  the  cylinder,  gripers 
are  made  to  compress  the  edge  of  the  paper  upon  it,  very 
much  in  the  manner  in  which  the  fore-finger  closes  on  the 
thumb.  It  is  by  these  means  conveyed  with  it  during  one 
revolution,  in  the  course  of  which  it  is  printed  on  one  side. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  second  revolution  these  gripers 
open  at  the  precise  moment,  when  the  gripers  attached  to  the 
second  cylinder  close,  and  thus  convey  the  sheet  over  the 
second  form.  Tapes  pass  under  the  second  cylinder,  between 
the  blanket  and  the  paper,  and  over  a  pulley  upon  a  bar,  by 
the  mere  friction  of  which  the  sheet  is  thrown  out  upon  a 
board.  These  gripers  are  made  to  act  with  such  perfect  cer- 
tainty that  the  best  possible  register  is  obtained.  The  inking 
apparatus  consists  of  a  trough  with  a  ductor  and  vibrating 
roller,  which  communicates  the  ink  to  composition-rollers,  by 
the  revolution  of  which  in  contact  with  each  other  the  ink  is 
perfectly  distributed,  and  from  these  to  the  type.  A  cross 
motion  is  communicated  to  the  distributing-roller  by  means 
of  a  worm  in  the  elongated  spindle.  As  but  one  impression 
is  given  during  the  traverse  of  the  table  in  each  direction, 
the  cylinder  which  does  not  at  the  moment  hold  the  paper 
would  be  in  contact  with  the  type,  had  not  Mr.  Napier  added 
a  beautiful  adjustment,  whereby  the  cylinders  rise  and  fall 
alternately,  so  that  the  one  not  in  use  passes  over  the  form 
intact.     This  machine  will  work  from  1000  to  1200  perfect 


134  Five  Black  Arts. 

sheets  per  hour,  and  requires  but  two  boys.  Mr.  Napier 
has  constructed  several  other  machines  of  great  merit,  one 
of  which,  for  newspapers,  will  perfect  2000  sheets  per  hour 
by  the  labor  of  two  men. 

Messrs.  Hopkinson  and  Cope  have  also  produced  a  double- 
cylinder  perfecting  griper  machine  adapted  for  book-work  or 
newspapers.  The  peculiarity  of  this  machine  is,  that  it  is 
supplied  with  a  set-off  sheet  apparatus,  by  which  a  "  set-off 
sheet"  is  fed  in  with  each  sheet  to  be  printed,  which  it  meets 
as  the  latter  enters  on  the  second  cylinder,  and,  passing 
round  with  it,  prevents  the  ink  on  the  printed  side  of  the 
paper  setting  off  on  the  blanket  of  the  cylinder,  and  being 
thence  transferred  to  the  following  sheet.  This  apparatus 
can  be  easily  dispensed  with  when  ordinary  work  is  being 
printed.  They  have  also  made  a  single  cylinder  griper  ma- 
chine called  a  "  Desideratum."  It  is  supplied  with  a  point- 
ing apparatus,  which  renders  it  available  for  book-work. 

Before  the  invention  of  cylinder  machines,  the  desire  to 
obtain  increased  speed  led  to  many  ingenious  contrivances 
for  accelerating  the  action  and  economising  the  expense  of 
the  ordinary  printing-press ;  all  of  which,  however,  either 
failed,  or  were  superseded  by  the  steam  machine.  There 
are  now  in  general  use,  for  book-work  of  a  quality  superior 
to  that  produced  by  the  cylinder,  several  machine-presses 
which  are  in  every  respect  satisfactory.  They  generally 
consist  of  two  tables,  on  each  of  which  a  form  is  laid  ;  these 
pass  alternately  under  a  self-acting  platen :  while  one  form 
is  receiving  the  impression,  the  other  is  delivering  its  printed 
sheet  to  the  taker-off,  and  receiving  its  white  sheet  from  the 
layer-on.  This  double  operation  is  effected  at  the  same  time, 
by  the  frisket  being  attached  to  the  tympan  at  the  bottom 
(not  at  the  top  as  in  the  common  press).  When  the  tympan 
opens,  it  falls  back  inward ;  the  white  paper  is  laid  on  the 
frisket,  the  tympan  closes  upon  it,  it  is  printed  ;  but  when 
the  tympan  opens,  the  printed  sheet  is  made  to  rise  with  it, 
and  is  taken  off  while  the  layer-on  is  placing  another  sheet 
on  the  frisket.  The  ink  is  conveyed  to  the  type  by  a  similar 
apparatus  to  that  used  in  cylinder  machines.  These  machine- 
presses  do  excellent  work  at  the  rate  of  600  or  700  impres- 
sions per  hour,  and  are  made  by  the  same  firms  as  supply 
cylinder-machines. 


P  RiNTiNG — Machines  . 


185 


The  "  Scandinavian  "  machine-press  differs  from  all  others 
in  respect  that  the  form  of  type  is  stationary,  and  that  the 
tympan  and  inking-roller  are  passed  between  the  form  and 
the  platen.  As  the  power  required  to  set  this  press  in  mo- 
tion is  much  less  than  that  required  where  the  form  and 
table  travel,  manual  labor  is  sufficient ;  but  only  one  form 
can  be  worked  at  a  time. 

These  are  by  no  means  all  the  machines  that  have  been 
devised  or  brought  into  use.  They  are,  however,  all  that  it 
is  necessary  to  mention,  as  the  same  principle  is  common  to 
all.  Every  maker  is  at  liberty  to  manufacture  almost  all  of 
them,  with  such  modifications  as  his  own  talents  may  suggest, 
the  patents,  where  any  were  taken  out,  having,  with  few 
exceptions,  expired. 


POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN 


BY  CHARLES  TOMLINSON. 


1 
POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN. 


The  word  pottery  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  low  Latin 
term  potus,  a  pot,  which  is  from  tlie  classical  Latin  potus, 
drink ;  *  but  the  etymology  of  porcelain  is  more  uncertain. 
Some  writers  derive  it  from  porcellana,  the  Portuguese  for  a 
drinking-cup  ;  others  from  a  similar  word  in  Italian,  which  is 
applied  to  a  univalve  shell  of  the  genus  Cyprceidce,  or  cow- 
ries, having  a  high  arched  back  resembling  that  of  a  hog 
(^porco,  Ital.),  and  a  white,  smooth,  vitreous  glossiness  of 
surface  similar  to  that  of  fine  porcelain.  The  essential  in- 
gredients of  every  article  in  pottery  and  porcelain  are  silica 
and  alumina.  The  pure  chemical  compound,  silicate  of  al- 
umina, must,  however,  be  regarded  as  an  ideal  type,  unat- 
tainable even  in  the  finest  porcelain  ;  while  in  the  coarser  va- 
rieties, and  in  pottery,  impurities,  such  as  iron,  lime,  potash, 
etc.,  give  character  to  the  resulting  wares.  Even  if  it  were 
possible  to  obtain  pure  silica  and  alumina  in  sufficient  quanti- 
ties for  manufacturing  purposes,  it  would  still  be  necessary  to 
add  certain  substances  to  increase  somewhat  the  fusibility  of 
these  refractory  materials.  Pottery  is  also  distinguished  by 
being  opaque,  while  porcelain  is  translucent.  Wares  of 
either  kind  are  further  distinguished  by  the  terms  soft  and 
hard,  or,  as  the  French  term  them,  tendre  and  dur — distinc- 
tions which  relate  as  well  to  the  composition  of  the  ware  as 
to  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  made  solid.  Common  bricks 
and  earthenware  vessels,  pipkins,  pans,  etc.,  are  soft;  while 
fire-brick  and  crockery,  such  as  queen's-ware,  stone-ware, 
etc.,  are  hard.  Soft  pottery,  consisting  of  silica,  alumina, 
and  lime,  admits  of  being  scratched  with  a  knife  or  file,  and 
is  usually  fusible  at  the  heat  required  merely  for  baking  por- 

[  *Pot  is  said  byTooke  to  be  the  past  tense  of  the  verb  toj>i< — >.  e.,  to  ex- 

cavate or  sink  into  a  hollow. 


140  Five  Black  Arts. 

celain.  Stone- ware  is  composed  of  silica,  alumina,  and  ba- 
ryta, and  may  be  regarded  as  a  coarse  kind  of  porcelain. 
Hard  porcelain  contains  more  of  alumina  and  less  of  silica 
than  the  soft ;  it  is  baked  at  a  stronger  heat,  and  is  more 
dense.  Soft  porcelain  contains  more  silica  than  the  hard,  and 
is  also  combined  with  alkaline  fluxes,  so  that  its  softness  is 
manifested  in  being  easily  scratched  and  less  able  to  resist  a 
strong  heat. 

HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 

Articles  of  fictile  ware  are  at  once  the  most  fragile  and  the 
most  enduring  of  human  monuments.  A  piece  of  common 
pottery,  liable  to  be  shivered  to  pieces  by  a  slight  blow,  is 
more  enduring  than  epitaphs  in  brass  and  effigies  in  bronze. 
These  yield  to  the  varying  action  of  the  weather;  stone 
crumbles  away,  ink  fades,  and  paper  decays  ;  but  the  earthen 
vase,  deposited  in  some  quiet  but  forgotten  receptacle,  sur- 
vives the  changes  of  time,  and  even  when  broken  at  the  mo- 
ment of  its  discovery  by  the  pick  of  the  laborer,  affords  in- 
struction in  its  fragments.  In  their  power  of  traversing 
accumulated  ages,  and  affording  glimpses  of  ancient  times 
and  people,  fictile  articles  have  been  compared  to  the  fossils 
of  animals  and  plants,  which  reveal  to  the  educated  eye  the 
former  conditions  of  our  globe. 

Clay  is  so  generally  diffused,  and  its  plastic  nature  is  so 
obvious,  that  the  art  of  working  it  cannot  be  considered  as 
above  the  intelligence  of  a  savage  ;  hence  the  production  of 
articles  in  clay  may  be  said  to  belong  to  every  people  and  to 
all  time.  The  first  drinking-vessels  would  be  sun-baked,  and 
consequently  very  destructible  ;  so  that  few  articles  would 
survive  a  single  winter.  A  considerable  period  must  have 
elapsed  before  the  method  of  giving  permanence  to  these  ar- 
ticles by  the  action  of  fire  was  discovered ;  but  it  is  chiefly 
to  this  discovery  that  we  owe  the  preservation  of  so  many 
ancient  relics  of  the  fictile  art.  The  sun-dried  bricks  of 
Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylonia,  have,  however,  been  pre- 
served to  this  day,  and  "  not  only  afford  testimony  to  the 
truth  of  Scripture  by  their  composition  of  straw  and  clay, 
but  also  by  the  hieroglyphs  impressed  upon  them,  transmit  the 
names  of  a  series  of  kings,  and  testify  the  existence  of  edi- 
fices, all  knowledge  of  which,  except  for  these  relics,  would 


I 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — ^History.  141 


have  utterly  perished.  Those  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  in 
addition  to  the  same  information,  have,  by  their  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions, which  mention  the  locality  of  the  edifices  for  which 
they  were  made,  afforded  the  means  of  tracing  the  sites  of 
ancient  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria  with  an  accuracy  unattain- 
able by  any  other  means.  When  the  brick  was  ornamented, 
as  in  Assyria,  with  glazed  representations,  this  apparently 
insignificant  but  imperishable  object  has  confirmed  the  de- 
scriptions of  the  walls  of  Babylon,  which  critical  skepticism 
had  denounced  as  fabulous.  The  Roman  bricks  have  also 
borne  their  testimony  to  history.  A  large  number  of  them 
present  a  series  of  the  names  of  consuls  of  imperial  Rome  ; 
while  others  show  that  the  proud  nobility  of  the  Eternal  City 
partly  derived  their  revenues  from  the  kilns  of  their  Cam- 
panian  and  Sabine  farms."  * 

The  excellent  authority  just  quoted  refers  to  the  next  step 
in  the  progress  of  manufacture,  namely,  that  of  modeling  in 
clay  the  forms  of  the  physical  world,  the  origin  of  the  plastic 
art,  "  to  which  the  symbolical  pantheism  of  the  old  world 
gave  an  extension  almost  universal."  When  stone  and  metal 
came  to  be  used  as  materials  for  sculpture,  clay  was  still  em- 
ployed for  the  elaboration  of  the  model,  and  also  for  the  mul- 
tiplication of  copies  for  popular  use  of  celebrated  pieces  of 
sculpture.  The  invention  of  the  mould  caused  the  terra  cot- 
tas  of  antiquity  to  be  as  widely  diffused  as  the  plaster  casts 
of  modern  times.  Among  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
clay  was  used  as  a  material  for  writing  on.  The  traveler 
Layard  discovered  in  the  palace  of  Sennacherib  a  whole  li- 
brary of  clay  books,  consisting  of  histories,  deeds,  almanacs, 
spelling-books,  vocabularies,  inventories,  horoscopes,  receipts, 
letters,  etc.  About  2000  of  these  clay  books  of  the  Assyr- 
ians have  been  discovered  :  they  are  in  the  form  of  tablets, 
cylinders,  and  hexagonal  prisms  of  terra  cotta. 

Before  the  invention  of  the  potter's  wheel,  clay  vessels 
could  have  had  but  little  symmetry  of  shape.  The  necessity 
for  some  such  contrivance  must  have  been  early  felt,  and  it 
was  probably  invented  by  several  nations.  It  is  represented 
on  the  Egyptian  sculptures ;  it  is  mentioned  in  Holy  Scrip- 
ture ;   and  was  in  use  at  an  early  period  in  Assyria.     Mr. 

*IIistory  of  Ancient  Pottery,  by  Samuel  Birch,  F.S.A.,  London,  1858. 


142  Five  Black  Arts. 

Birch  states,  that  "  the  very  oldest  vases  of  Greece,  some  of 
which  are  supposed  to  have  been  made  in  the  heroic  ages, 
bear  marks  of  having  been  turned  upon  the  wheel."  The 
art  of  firing  .the  ware  is  also  of  the  highest  antiquity.  Re- 
mains of  baked  earthenware  are  common  in  Egypt  in  the 
tombs  of  the  first  dynasties,  and  the  oldest  bricks  and  tablets 
of  Assyria  and  Babylon  bear  evidence  of  having  passed 
through  the  fire.  The  oldest  remains  of  Hellenic  pottery  owe 
their  preservation  to  their  having  been  fired.  As  the  clay 
by  this  process  is  rendered  porous  and  incapable  of  holding 
liquids,  the  necessity  for  some  kind  of  glaze  must  have  been 
early  felt.  Opaque  glasses  or  enamels  have  been  found  in 
Egypt  as  old  as  the  fourth  dynasty,  and  both  the  Egyptians 
and  the  Assyrians  seem  to  have  preferred  an  opaque  enamel 
to  a  transparent  glaze,  somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  the  mod- 
ern faience.  Numerous  fragments  testify  to  the  use  of  glaz- 
ing amongst  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  With  respect 
to  form,  the  Greek  vases,  by  their  beauty  and  simplicity,  have 
become  models  for  various  kinds  of  earthenware  ;  while  the 
application  of  painting  to  vases  has  transmitted  to  us  much  in- 
formation respecting  the  mythology,  manners,  customs  and 
literature  of  ancient  Greece.  Even  the  Roman  lamps  and 
red  ware  illustrate  in  their  ornaments  many  customs,  man- 
ners, and  historical  events.  As  the  pottery  of  difierent 
modern  nations  has  its  characteristic  features,  so  the  ancient 
pottery  has  its  distinctions  of  time  and  place.  It  is  impossi- 
ble not  to  distinguish  between  the  rude  and  simple  urns  fash- 
ioned by  the  early  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain  and  the  more 
carefully  finished  specimens  of  the  Roman  conquerors  of  these 
islands.  Then,  again,  the  simple  unglazed  earthenware  of 
Greece  contrasts  with  the  more  elaborate  Etruscan  forms,  the 
finest  of  which,  however,  are  probably  by  Greek  artists.  Then, 
again,  the  red  and  black  potteries  of  India  contrast  with  the 
black  and  white  potteries  of  North  America,  the  latter  being 
interspersed  with  fragments  of  bivalve  shells.  On  the  dis- 
covery of  the  extraordinary  ruins  in  Central  America,  speci- 
mens of  pottery  were  found  which  showed  considerable  ad- 
vance in  the  art  compared  with  the  date  assigned  to  these 
ruins,  namely,  1000  B.C.  The  specimens  had  been  formed 
without  the  assistance  of  the  potter's  wheel ;  but  they  are 
well  baked,  the  ornaments  are  in  different  colors,  and  they 


I 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  143 


are  coated  with  a  fine  vitreous  glaze,  such  as  was  unknown  in 
Europe  until  within  about  ten  centuries.  The  religious  em- 
ployment of  earthen  vessels  in  early  times,  and  the  custom  of 
placing  them  in  tombs  as  receptacles  for  medals,  trophies,  in- 
signia, money,  rings,  and  votive  offerings,  has  greatly  assisted 
the  studies  of  archaeologists  in  modern  times,  and  we  can  do 
no  more  in  this  brief  sketch  than  refer  to  their  useful  labors. 

Porcelain  is  of  modern  introduction  into  Europe,  but  it  was 
known  in  China  more  than  a  century  before  the  Christian  era. 
The  Chinese  appear  to  have  improved  their  art  during  four 
or  five  centuries,  and  then,  supposing  themselves  to  have  at- 
tained perfection,  they  allowed  the  art  to  remain  stationary. 
So  completely  was  the  manufacture  identified  with  that  na- 
tion, that  on  the  introduction  of  porcelain  into  Europe  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1518,  it  received  the  name  of  china^  which  it 
still  partially  retains.  The  Chinese  continued  to  supply  us  with 
porcelain  during  many  years.  It  was  supposed  that  the  fine 
clay  or  kaolin  used  in  its  production  was  peculiar  to  China, 
and  that  it  was  consequently  hopeless  to  attempt  to  manufac- 
ture porcelain  in  Europe.  The  porcelain  of  Japan  is  only  a 
variety  of  the  Chinese. 

While  the  Chinese  were  improving  their  manufacture,  the 
art  of  making  decorative  pottery  became  lost  in  Europe  amid 
the  darkness  which  followed  the  overthrow  of  the  Western 
Empire.  The  first  symptoms  of  revival  were  due  to  the  Mo- 
hammedan invaders  of  Spain,  whose  tiles  of  enameled  earth- 
enware are  to  be  seen  in  the  Moorish  buildings  of  Seville, 
Toledo,  Granada,  and  the  Alhambra.  They  are  of  a  pale 
clay,  "  the  surface  of  which  is  coated  over  with  a  white  opaque 
enamel,  upon  which  the  elaborate  designs  are  executed  in 
colors.*  The  Spaniards  acquired  from  the  Moors  the  art  of 
manufacturing  enameled  tiles,  or  azulejos  as  they  are  called, 
and  they  still  continue  to  be  made  in  Valencia.  The  Moors 
also  adorned  their  pottery  with  Arabic  inscriptions,  and  with 
arabesque  patterns  resembling  a  lace  vail  in  richness.  The 
vase  known  as  that  of  the  Alhambra  is  of  earthenware ;  the 
ground  is  white,  the  ornaments  are  either  blue  of  two  shades, 
or  of  gold  or  copper  luster.f     The  Moors  continued  to  manu- 

*A  History  of  Pottery  and  Porcelain,  mediaeval  and  modern,  by  Joseph  Marryat, 
2d  edition,  London,  1857. 

t  This  vase  is  figured  in  Owen  Jones's  work  on  the  Alhambra. 


144  Five  Black  Arts. 

facture  ornamental  pottery  until  the  time  of  their  final  expul- 
sion from  Spain  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
This  Hispano-Arabic  pottery,  as  it  is  called,  is  the  prototype 
of  the  Italian  majolica,  and  was  long  confounded  with  it. 
Specimens  of  it  are  to  be  seen  in  several  celebrated  collec 
tions.  The  majolica,  or  enameled  ware  of  Italy,  probably 
dates  from  the  twelfth  century.  It  is  related  that  a  pirate 
king  of  Majorca,  about  1115,  was  besieged  in  his  stronghold 
by  an  armament  from  Pisa,  and  being  vanquished,  the  expe- 
dition returned  to  Italy  laden  with  spoil,  among  which,  it  is 
supposed,  were  a  number  of  plates  of  painted  Moorish  pot- 
tery, such  specimens  being  found  incrusted  in  the  walls  of 
the  most  ancient  churches  of  Pisa.  They  appear  to  have 
been  regarded  as  religious  trophies.  No  attempt,  however, 
was  made  to  imitate  them  until  the  fourteenth  century,  when 
specimens  of  majolica,  so  called  from  the  island  of  Majorca, 
were  produced ;  they  resemble  the  Moorish  examples  in  having 
arabesque  patterns  in  yellow  and  green,  upon  a  blue  ground. 
About  the  year  1451  the  manufacture  had  become  celebrated 
at  Pesaro,  the  birthplace  of  Luca  della  Kobbia,  who  is  re- 
garded by  persons  who  set  aside  the  foregoing  origin  of  ma- 
jolica as  the  inventor  of  this  ware.  He  appears  to  have 
earned  distinction  as  a  sculptor  when  he  took  to  working  in 
terra  cotta,  and  gave  permanence  to  his  productions  by  the 
invention  of  a  white  enamel.  His  Madonnas,  Scripture  sub- 
jects, figures  and  architectural  pieces  are  still  prized  by  collec- 
tors. Mr.  Marryat  refers  to  them  as  "  by  far  the  finest  works 
of  art  ever  executed  in  pottery."  He  is  also  "  the  founder  of 
a  school  which  produced  works  not  much  inferior  to  his  own." 
Existing  specimens  are  of  a  dazzling  whiteness,  and  the  glaze, 
after  so  great  a  lapse  of  time,  continues  to  be  quite  perfect. 
The  manufacture  of  majolica  flourished  during  two  centuries 
under  the  patronage  of  the  House  of  Urbino.  The  first  duke, 
Frederick  of  Montefeltro  (1444),  took  a  lively  interest  in  the 
manufacture ;  his  son  established  a  manufacture  at  Pesaro, 
and  the  most  eminent  artists  were  employed  in  furnishing  de- 
signs, a  system  of  patronage  which  was  maintained  by  suc- 
ceeding dukes.  There  is  a  tradition  that  Raffaelle  was  em- 
ployed in  furnishing  designs;  whence  majolica  sometimes 
passes  by  the  name  of  Raffaelle  ware.  But  as  the  finest 
specimens  do  not  date  earlier  than  1540,  or  twenty  years 


( 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  145 

after  the  death  of  that  great  artist,  he  was  probably  not  di- 
rectly concerned  in  the  manufacture.  But  it  is  admitted  that 
his  scholars  used  his  drawings  in  composing  designs  for  the 
finest  specimens.  In  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  and  during 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  many  towns  of  Italy  had  be- 
come renowned  for  their  majolica  ware,  of  which  the  coarser 
specimens  were  named  inezza-majolica,  and  the  finer,  how- 
ever inappropriately,  porcelana.  The  manufacture  had  at- 
tained its  greatest  celebrity  between  1540  and  1560.  After 
the  last-named  date  the  art  began  to  decline,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  porcelain,  properly  so  called,  helped  to  complete 
its  downfall.  The  caprices  of  fashion  cannot  be  alone  charged 
"with  the  destruction  of  this  beautiful  art,  since,  so  far  as  util- 
ity is  concerned,  a  hard  paste  covered  with  a  vitreous  glaze, 
as  in  porcelain,  must  be  very  superior  to  a  soft  paste  coated 
with  a  metallic  glaze,  as  in  the  case  of  majolica.  The  best 
examples  of  mezza-majolica  are  distinguished  by  the  beauty 
of  their  color,  and  the  perfection  of  their  enamel  glaze ;  the 
latter  imparting  to  the  yellow  and  white  tints  the  metallic 
luster  of  gold  and  silver.  There  is  also  a  remarkable  mother- 
of-pearl  luster,  together  with  an  iridescent  ruby,  peculiar  to 
Pesaro  and  Gubbio.  The  most  general  colors  used  in  the 
painting  were  blue  and  yellow,  with  their  mixtures.  The 
drawing  is  not  so  good  as  the  coloring,  until  the  so-called  por- 
celana raised  the  art  to  its  zenith.  After  the  year  1560  the 
designs  became  more  fanciful  and  grotesque,  and  the  colors 
inferior.  It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  the  arti- 
cles manufactured  were  ornamental  only.  During  the  whole 
reign  of  majolica  ware,  all  kinds  of  common  articles  were 
produced,  such  as  pilgrim's  bottles,  with  holes  in  the  bottom 
rim  for  the  strap  or  cord  by  which  the  vessel  was  carried ; 
various  forms  of  vases,  adorned  with  paintings,  with  handles 
in  the  form  of  serpents,  and  rims  surmounted  by  grotesque 
figures  of  animals  and  fishes ;  fruit  dishes,  with  embossed  pat- 
terns in  high  relief;  small  plates  for  ices  and  sweetmeats; 
vases,  for  holding  different  kinds  of  wine,  which  could  be 
poured  out  from  one  spout ;  small  flasks,  in  the  shape  of  lemons 
and  apples ;  cups  covered  with  tendrils  or  quaint  devices ; 
small  figures  of  saints ;  jocose  figures ;  birds  colored  after 
nature  ;  painted  tiles  for  walls  and  floors,  etc.  Some  of  the 
most  interesting  specimens  of  majolica  are  known  as  amato- 
10 


146  Five  Black  Arts. 

m,  and  consist  of  vessels,  plates,  or  deep  saucers,  containing 
the.  portrait  and  name  of  a  lady  ;  these  were  filled  with  fruits 
or  sweetmeats,  and  presented  as  pledges  of  affection.  The 
portraits  not  only  perpetuate  the  female  beauty  of  a  former 
age,  but  also  the  costume  by  which  it  was  sought  to  make 
that  beauty  more  attractive.  Some  of  the  amatorii  repre- 
sent hands  united,  hearts  a-flame,  or  pierced  with  darts,  after 
the  fashion  of  the  modern  valentine.  The  painters  who  exe- 
cuted the  designs  were  usually  copyists,  the  design  itself 
being  furnished  by  an  eminent  artist.  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, the  painters  themselves  were  the  artists,  and  are  known 
by  certain  monograms  and  marks.  Occasionally  the  painters 
bought  the  pieces  ready  prepared  for  painting,  executed  them 
at  home,  and  took  them  to  the  kiln  to  be  fired.  In  such 
cases,  the  piece  is  often  marked  with  the  name  of  the  potter, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  artist.  The  custom  of  attaching  sig- 
natures to  the  pieces  is  peculiar  to  some  manufactories :  those 
with  names  and  monograms  for  the  most  part  belong  to  Gub- 
bio  and  Albino.  Different  towns  had  their  distinguishing 
marks,  and  it  was  common  to  mark  in  blue  characters  on  the 
back  of  the  dish  the  subject  of  the  design ;  but  when  a  com- 
plete service  was  painted,  only  the  principal  piece  was 
marked  :  it  was  also  customary  to  introduce  the  arms  of  the 
family  for  whom  the  service  was  prepared. 

Majolica  was  introduced  into  Germany  in  1507  by  Hirsch- 
vogel  of  Nuremberg,  but  the  manufacture  does  not  appear  to 
have  survived  him.  It  prospered  better  in  France,  where, 
under  the  name  of  faience*  it  flourished  under  the  patronage 
of  Catherine  de  Medici  and  her  kinsman  Louis  Gonzaga. 
The  latter  established  Italian  artists  in  his  dukedom  of  Nev- 
ers,  and  they  were  successful  in  producing  enameled  pottery 
from  native  materials.  Gradually  as  native  artists  succeeded 
the  Italian  ones,  the  classical  designs  of  the  latter  were  de- 
graded, and  the  enameled  ware  of  Italy  was  represented  only 
by  the  common  faience  of  France.  In  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury Nevers  recovered  her  reputation,  and  became  celebrated 
for  the  brilliancy  of  a  dark  blue  enamel  with  white  patterns 
upon  common  ware.     A  variety  of  enameled  pottery  was  also 

*  This  term  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  small  town,  now  a  village, 
of  Faience,  in  the  department  of  Var,  which,  as  early  as  the  sixth  century, 
appears  to  have  been  celebrated  for  glazed  pottery. 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  147 

produced  at  Rouen  :  this  attracted  some  notice  ;  but  the  kind 
of  ware  which  maj  be  said  to  be  peculiar  to  France  is  that 
known  as  PaHssy  ware.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  romance 
mixed  up  with  the  life  of  the  inventor  of  this  ware.  Ber- 
nard Palissy  and  his  adventures,  real  or  imaginary,  have  as- 
sisted in  multiplying  the  number  of  those  dangerous  books 
which  ascribe  imaginary  events  to  real  characters.  Palissy 
was  born  at  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century,  of 
poor  parents ;  but  nature  had  implanted  within  him  a  love  of 
the  beautiful,  which  became  his  teacher.  He  managed  to  ac- 
quire a  knowledge  of  reading,  writing,  and  land-surveying, 
by  which  last-named  art  he  earned  his  livelihood.  In  the  in- 
tervals of  employment  he  was  much  given  to  the  study  of  the 
Italian  masters,  and  he  was  delighted  to  obtain  work  in  paint- 
ing images  and  designs  on  glass.  This  enabled  him  to  gratify 
his  taste  for  travel,  and  for  studying  natural  objects.  He  be- 
came master  of  the  chemistry  and  mineralogy  of  his  day,  such 
as  it  was.  In  1539  he  settled  at  Saintes  as  an  artist,  where 
he  married.  His  attention  was  directed  to  pottery  by  being 
shown  a  beautiful  enameled  cup,  and  on  proceeding  to  inquire 
into  its  mode  of  manufacture,  he  found  that  there  were  secrets 
connected  with  it,  and  especially  with  the  composition  of  the 
enamel.  He  at  once  undertook  a  course  of  experiments  on 
the  subject,  but  without  success.  The  desire  to  master  the 
subject  had,  however,  taken  such  possession  of  him,  that  du- 
ring several  years  he  devoted  nearly  all  his  time  and  means 
to  this  pursuit,  in  spite  of  the  claims  of  his  wife  and  family 
and  the  remonstrances  of  his  friends.  He  borrowed  money 
to  enable  him  to  construct  a  new  furnace ;  and  when  too  poor 
to  buy  fuel,  he  used  his  furniture  instead.  When  unable  to 
pay  his  assistant's  wages,  he  gave  him  the  coat  from  off  his 
back.  Thus  becoming  every  year  more  wretched  than  the 
preceding,  the  folly  of  sixteen  years  (as  it  would  have  been 
called  had  he  failed)  ended  in  a  triumph.  His  figulines  or 
rustic  pottery  became  the  fashion  of  the  day,  and  his  beauti- 
ful patterns  were  every  where  admired.  The  general  style 
of  his  ware  is  marked  by  quaintness  and  singularity ;  his  fig- 
ures are  usually  chaste  in  form :  the  ornaments  and  subjects 
of  an  historical,  mythological,  and  allegorical  character  are 
in  relief,  and  colored.  His  natural  objects,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  certain  leaves,  were  all  moulded  from  nature.     His 


148  Five  Black  Arts. 

shells  are  those  of  the  tertiary  formation  of  the  Paris  basin ; 
his  fish  are  those  of  the  Seine ;  the  reptiles  and  plants  are 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Paris ;  and  he  made  use  of  no  for- 
eign natural  production.  The  colors  are  usually  bright,  and 
mostly  confined  to  yellows,  blues,  and  grays ;  sometimes  ex- 
tending to  green,  violet,  and  brown.  Mr.  Marryat  says  that 
Palissy  never  succeeded  in  attaining  the  purity  of  the  white 
enamel  of  Luca  della  Robbia,  or  even  that  of  the  faience  of 
Nevers.  The  pieces  rustiques  of  this  artist,  intended  to 
adorn  the  large  sideboards  of  the  dining-rooms  of  the  period, 
are  loaded  with  objects  in  relief.  A  favorite  subject  with 
him  was  a  flat  kind  of  basin  or  dish,  representing  tlie  bottom 
of  the  sea,  covered  with  fishes,  shells,  sea-weeds,  pebbles, 
snakes,  etc.  We  have  also  from  the  hand  of  this  artist,  ewers 
and  vases  with  grotesque  ornaments,  boars'  heads,  curiously- 
formed  salt-cellars,  figures  of  saints,  wall  and  floor  tiles,  etc. 
Mr.  Baring  Wall  speaks  of  Palissy  as  "  a  great  master  of  the 
power  and  effect  of  neutral  tints."  * 

France  is  also  celebrated  for  a  fine  ware  known  as  faience 
fine  and  gres  cerame.  Some  of  the  earliest  specimens  are 
known  under  the  name  of  renaissance,  or  fine  faience  of 
Henri  II.  There  are  only  thirty- seven  pieces  of  this  manu- 
facture extant ;  and  as  twenty-seven  of  them  have  been 
traced  to  Touraine  and  La  Vendue,  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  the  manufactory  was  at  Thouars  in  Touraine.  The  ma- 
terial is  a  fine  white  pipe-clay,  the  texture  of  which  is  seen 
through  the  thin  transparent  yellow  varnish.  The  patterns 
are  engraved  on  the  paste,  and  the  hollows  filled  up  with  col- 
ored pastes,  so  as  to  resemble  fine  inlaying,  or  chiseled  silver 
works  in  niello;  whence  this  ware  has  also  been  termed 
faience  a  niello.  There  are  also  beautifully-modeled  raised 
ornaments :  the  articles  are  for  the  most  part  small  and  light, 
consisting  of  cups,  ewers,  and  a  vase  with  a  spout  for  pouring, 
called  a  hiberon.  A  single  candlestick  of  this  ware  was  sold 
a  few  years  ago  for  220^. 

Germany  had  its  enameled  wares  as  early  as  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  secret  of  success  being  of  course  the  discovery 
of  a  fine  glaze.  Ratisbon,  Landschut,  and  Nuremberg  thus 
became  formidable  rivals  of  the  Arabs  and  the  Italians.     The 

♦Lecture  delivered  before  the  Literary  and  Scientific  Society  of  Salis- 
bury, January,  1853.    Printed  for  private  circulation. 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  149 

distinctive  characters  of  this  ware  are  the  fine  green  glaze, 
the  complex  form,  the  number  and  variety  of  ornaments, 
lightness,  and  good  workmanship.  Nuremberg  also  became 
famous  for  its  large  enameled  tiles  used  for  covering  stoves. 

Holland,  from  its  exclusive  trade  with  Japan,  was  induced  to 
imitate  the  Japanese  porcelain.  The  chief  seat  of  the  man- 
ufacture was  Delft ;  and  the  ware  was  known  and  esteemed 
in  the  sixteenth  century  by  its  fantastic  design,  good  color,  and 
beautiful  enamel — the  latter  being  smooth  and  even,  and 
slightly  tinged  with  blue.  The  Japanese  origin  was  seen  in 
the  monstrous  animals  of  the  chimera  class,  the  three-ringed 
bottle,  the  tall  shapeless  beaker,  and  the  large  circular  dish, 
which  were  long  regarded  in  Europe  as  favorite  ornaments ; 
while  the  common  articles  were  so  generally  distributed  as  to 
obtain  for  Delft,  the  title  of  the  "  parent  of  pottery."  The 
fine  English  wares  introduced  by  Wedgwood  and  others  were 
the  means  of  injurng  the  trade  of  Delft. 

In  England,  the  first  manufactory  of  fine  earthenware  is 
said  to  have  been  erected  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  at  Strat- 
ford-le-Bow.  The  well-known  Shakspeare  jug  is  cited  as  a 
good  specimen  of  Elizabethan  pottery.  It  is  of  cream-colored 
earthenware,  about  9  inches  in  height  and  16  in  circumfer- 
ence in  the  largest  part.  Its  shape  resembles  that  of  a  mod- 
ern coffee-pot.  It  is  divided  lengthwise  into  eight  compart- 
ments, each  containing  a  mythological  subject  in  high  relief 
and  of  considerable  merit.  The  silver  top  is  a  modern  ad- 
dition. The  Elizabethan  pottery  nearly  approaches  in  hard- 
ness that  of  fine  stone-ware ;  it  is  of  a  dingy  white,  and  its 
ornaments  in  relief  consist  mostly  of  quaint  figures  and  foli- 
age. In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  Staffordshire  potteries 
came  into  notice,  of  which  some  of  the  earliest  specimens 
consist  of  butter-pots  of  native  brick  earth,  glazed  with  pow- 
dered lead-ore,  which  was  dusted  on  while  the  ware  was  in  a 
green  state ;  the  tig^  or  drinking-cup,  with  three  handles ; 
and  the  parting-cup,  with  two  handles.  In  1684  a  manu- 
factory of  earthenware  was  established  at  Fulham,  some  of 
the  products  of  which,  under  the  name  of  Fulham-ware,SLve  . 
still  valued  by  collectors.  They  consist  of  white  gorges  or 
pitchers,  marbled  porcelain  vessels,  statues,  and  figures.  The 
proprietor,  Mr.  John  Dwight,  attempted  to  produce  the  trans- 
parent porcelain  of  China,  but  his  success  was  not  such  as  to 


160  Five  Black  Arts. 

turn  him  from  the  more  profitable  manufacture  of  earthen- 
ware. About  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  ale-jugs  of  native 
marl,  ornamented  with  figures  in  white  pipe-clay,  were  intro- 
duced. During  the  reigns  of  Anne  and  George  1.  an  im- 
proved ware  was  made  of  sand  and  pipe-clay  colored  with 
oxide  of  copper  and  manganese,  forming  the  well-known 
agate-ware  and  tortoiseshell-ware,  conferring  on  the  pottery 
the  character  of  a  hard  paste,  which  was  subsequently  so 
much  improved  by  Wedgwood,  and  introduced  under  the 
name  of  Queen^s-ware. 

The  proceedings  of  Wedgwood  form  an  epoch  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  art.  Josiah  Wedgwood  was  the  son  of  a  potter 
at  Burslem  in  Staffordshire.  He  was  born  about  the  year 
1780,  and  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  received  any  formal 
education.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he  entered  his  brother's 
pottery  as  a  thrower ;  but  he  had  not  been  long  so  engaged 
before  he  was  attacked  by  small-pox,  which  left  him  with  a 
lame  leg,  and  rendered  amputation  necessary.  Ilis  first  at- 
tempts to  settle  in  life  were  not  fortunate ;  he  became  part- 
ner for  a  short  time  in  1752  with  a  man  named  Harrison,  at 
Stoke,  where  he  is  said  to  have  first  felt  a  strong  desire  to 
manufacture  ornamental  pottery.  His  next  partner  was 
named  Wheildon,  and  his  employment  consisted  in  manufac- 
turing knife-handles  in  imitation  of  agate  and  tortoise-shell, 
melon  table-plates,  green  pickle-leaves,  etc. ;  but  he  could  not 
induce  his  partner  to  embark  largely  in  the  production  of 
ornamental  wares,  nor  was  there  much  encouragement  to  do 
so.  The  upper  classes  of  Great  Britain  obtained  their  porce- 
lain from  China ;  the  great  bulk  of  the  earthenware  in  do- 
mestic use  was  supplied  by  France,  Germany,  and  Holland ; 
and  even  the  trade  in  tobacco-pipes,  in  which  England  had 
attained  some  success,  was  becoming  monopolized  by  the 
Dutch.  To  compete  with  these  formidable  rivals  required 
the  courage  and  persistence  of  genius ;  and  Wedgwood  was 
not  slow  in  bringing  them  to  bear  upon  the  native  materials 
which  surrounded  him.  Accordingly,  in  1759  he  established 
a  small  factory  on  his  own  account  at  Burslem.  Here  he 
must  have  been  successful,  for  he  soon  undertook  a  second 
manufactory,  where  he  produced  a  white  stone-ware,  and 
afterward  a  third,  where  he  manufactured  his  celebrated 
cream-colored  ware.     Some  specimens  of  the  latter  having 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  151 

been  shown  to  Queen  Charlotte,  her  Majesty  was  so  pleased 
with  them  that  she  appointed  Wedgwood  the  royal  potter,  and 
gave  permission  for  calling  the  ware  Queen's-ware.  Wedg- 
wood had  now  no  longer  reason  to  complain  of  want  of  taste 
or  of  prtronage  on  the  part  of  the  public,  and  nobly  did  he 
use  his  best  exertions  to  encourage  the  one  and  respond  wor- 
thily to  the  other.  He  studied  the  chemistry  of  his  day,  and 
courted  the  society  of  scientific  men,  with  a  view  to  improve 
the  composition,  glaze,  and  color  of  his  wares.  He  invited 
good  artists  to  furnish  him  with  desi;2;ns,  among  whom  was 
the  celebrated  Flaxman.  Among  Wedgwood's  inventions 
may  be  mentioned  a  terra  cotta,  resembling  porphyry;  ba- 
salts, or  black  ware,  which  would  strike  sparks  like  a  flint ; 
white  porcelain  biscuit,  with  properties  similar  to  basalt; 
bamboo,  or  cane-colored  biscuit ;  jasper,  a  white  biscuit,  of 
exquisite  delicacy  and  beauty,  well  adapted  for  cameos,  por- 
traits, etc. ;  also  blue  jasper  and  green  jasper,  and  a  porcelain 
biscuit  little  inferior  to  agate  in  hardness,  and  used  for  pes- 
tles and  mortars  in  the  laboratories  of  chemists.  He  also 
succeeded  in  imparting  to  hard  pottery  the  vivid  colors  and 
brilliant  glaze  of  porcelain.  About  the  year  1762  Wedg- 
wood opened  a  warehouse  in  London,  and  intrusted  it  to  the 
care  of  Mr.  Bentley,  a  gentleman  of  recognized  taste,  who 
succeeded  in  attracting;  attention  to  the  risin":  Staffordshire 
works,  and  also  in  obtaining  the  loan  of  vases,  cameos,  ori- 
ental porcelain,  etc.,  which  at  that  time  were  difficult  to 
procure,  especially  for  the  purposes  of  the  manufacturer ; 
but  such  was  the  sympathy  of  persons  of  taste  with  Wedg- 
wood's pursuits,  that  they  freely  lent  their  fictile  treasures 
either  to  be  copied  or  to  suggest  new  designs.  Even  the 
Barbarini  vase,  which  was  purchased  by  the  Duchess  of  Port- 
land for  1800  guineas,  was  lent  to  Wedgwood,  who,  after  ex- 
ecuting fifty  copies,  destroyed  the  mould.  Wedgwood's  wares 
now  became  so  deservedly  popular  that  the  extension  of  his 
works  in  Staffordshire  led  to  the  formation  of  a  new  village 
near  Newcastle-under-Lyne,  which  was  named  "  Etruria," 
from  the  resemblance  which  the  clay  dug  there  had  to  the 
ancient  Etrurian  earth,  and  also  probably  to  mark  the  success 
with  which  Wedgwood  had  imitated  the  ancient  Etruscan 
ware.  This  village  long  continued  to  be  a  center  of  attrac- 
tion for  travelers  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  we  may  still 


152  Five  Black  Arts. 

trace  that  celebrity  in  many  noted  collections  of  the  ceramic 
art,  Wedgwood's  finest  productions  taking  rank  with  the 
choicest  specimens  of  Dresden  and  Sevres.  Wedgwood  died 
at  his  mansion  in  Etruria  in  1795. 

The  stone-ware  which  Wedgwood  so  greatly  improved  had 
long  existed  under  various  forms  in  different  potteries  of  the 
world.  In  some  cases  it  was  common,  and  in  others  fine — 
the  difierence  consisting  in  the  composition  of  the  paste.  The 
Chinese  were  acquainted  with  this  ware,  and  were  accustomed 
to  use  it  as  the  basis  for  a  surface  of  porcelain  paste.  The 
stone  pottery  of  the  Rhine  of  the  sixteenth  century  is  esteemed 
by  collectors  for  its  quaintness  of  form,  richness  of  ornament, 
and  the  color  of  its  enam.el.  Gres  Flamand,  or  Flemish 
stone-ware,  of  the  period  between  1540  and  1620  is  remark- 
able for  its  beautiful  blue  color,  quaint  forms,  and  rich  orna- 
ments. France  also  appears  to  have  manufactured  stone- 
ware before  the  sixteenth  century.  In  England,  Dutch  and 
German  workmen  were  engaged  in  the  manufacture  at  an 
early  period.  In  1690  the  mode  of  glazing  by  means  of  com- 
mon salt  enabled  the  stone-ware  manufacturers  to  compete 
successfully  with  delft  and  soft  paste  fabrics.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century  a  very  fine  unglazed  stone- 
ware, with  raised  ornaments,  known  as  red  Japan  ware,  was 
made  in  England,  after  the  failure  of  many  previous  attempts. 
It  appears  that  two  brothers  named  Elers,  from  Nuremberg, 
discovered  at  Bradwell,  about  two  miles  from  Burslem,  a  bed 
of  fine  red  clay,  which  they  worked  at  a  small  factory  erected 
on  the  bed  itself.  They  endeavored  to  conceal  their  discov- 
ery, as  well  as  their  mode  of  working,  for  which  purpose  they 
employed  the  most  ignorant  assistants  that  they  could  meet 
with ;  but  no  sooner  did  their  ware  attract  attention  than  a 
potter  named  Astbury,  feigning  to  be  an  idiot,  entered  the 
service  of  the  two  brothers,  and  having  learnt  all  their  secrets, 
established  a  factory  for  himself;  the  processes  soon  became 
known,  and  others  followed  the  example.  In  1720  the  two 
brothers  closed  their  establishment,  and  entered  the  porcelain 
manufactory  at  Chelsea.  Mr.  Marryat  characterizes  their 
ware  as  being  fine  in  material  and  sharp  in  execution,  the  or- 
naments being  formed  in  copper  moulds. 

Regarding  stone-ware  as  a  connecting-link  between  earth- 
enware and  porcelain,  we  come  now  to  the  history  of  the 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  153 

latter  article.  China,  Japan,  and  Persia  are  the  earliest  na- 
tions which  produced  this  beautiful  material.  Bottles  of 
Chinese  manufacture  have  been  found  in  the  tombs  of  Thebes  ; 
and  from  an  inscription  on  one  of  them,  the  date  of  the  man- 
ufacture would  appear  to  be  between  1575  B.C.  and  1289  B.C. 
The  workmanship,  however,  is  inferior.  Porcelain  seems  to 
have  been  common  in  the  Chinese  empire  in  the  year  163  B.C., 
and  to  have  attained  its  greatest  perfection  in  the  year  1000 
A.D.  The  porcelain  tower  near  Nankin  was  erected  in  1277. 
Marco  Polo  describes  the  manufacture  in  China  during  the 
thirteenth  century.  Specimens  of  the  ware  had  gradually 
found  their  way  to  Europe,  but  were  not  generally  known 
until  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  had  been  doubled  by  the  Portu- 
guese. The  latter  were  so  struck  with  the  resemblance  be- 
tween the  texture  of  this  fine  ware  and  that  of  cowrie-shells 
or  "  porcellana,'*  as  they  were  called,  that  they  imagined 
that  the  ware  might  be  made  of  such  shells,  or  of  a  compo- 
sition resembling  them,  and  named  it  accordingly.  They  im- 
ported numerous  and  splendid  collections  of  the  ware  into 
Europe,  where  it  was  also  named  from  the  country  which  pro- 
duced it ;  and,  from  its  ringing  sound,  "  China  metal. '^  It 
was  also  called  "  China  earth."  On  the  expulsion  of  the 
Portuguese,  the  Dutch  succeeded  in  establishing  a  traffic  with 
India  and  Japan  ;  and  Europe  was  for  a  long  time  supplied 
with  porcelain  through  Holland.  The  English  shared  in  the 
trade  somewhat  later,  through  the  medium  of  the  East  India 
Company ;  but  the  taste  for  collecting  china  had  become  very 
general,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century 
had  amounted  to  a  passion.  The  writers  of  the  day  fre- 
quently refer  to  it,  especially  in  Queen  Anne's  reign.  The 
French,  who  had  established  missions  in  China,  succeeded  in 
obtaining,  from  time  to  time,  information  respecting  the  man- 
ufacture. Fokien  was  represented  as  the  seat  of  manufac- 
ture of  the  pure  white  porcelain  of  China,  some  of  which 
consists  of  small  cups  and  similar  articles,  with  inscriptions, 
devices,  etc.,  under  the  glaze,  so  that  they  can  only  be  seen 
by  holding  the  article  up  to  the  light.  Nankin  produced  the 
blue  and  white  porcelain,  as  also  the  pale  buff  on  the  necks 
of  bottles  and  backs  of  plates.  King-te-tching  was  named 
as  the  origin  of  the  old  sea-green  and  crackle  porcelain.  To 
the  former  the  term  celadon  has  been  applied ;  but  the  French 


154  Five  Black  Arts. 

extend  the  term  to  porcelain  of  any  tint  in  which  the  colors  are 
mixed  with  the  glaze,  and  burnt  in  at  the  first  firing.  In  some 
cases  two  or  more  colors  are  blended  so  as  to  give  the  appear- 
ance of  shot-silk ;  a  variety,  known  as  marbled,  belongs  to 
this  class,  and  resembles  marble  in  its  coloring  and  veining. 
Crackle  china,  in  which  an  immense  number  of  cracks  occur 
on  the  surface  in  small  regular  figures,  is  due  to  the  unequal 
expansion  of  the  glaze  on  the  paste.  The  crackled  "  tsoui-khi'' 
are  produced  by  combining  steatite  with  the  glaze ;  and  this 
when  fired,  splits  into  a  net-work  over  the  surface.  A  simi- 
lar effect  can  be  produced  by  plunging  the  heated  porcelain 
into  cold  water  ;  the  cracks  are  then  filled  in  with  a  thick 
ink  or  red-ocher.  The  ancient  crackle  is  so  much  esteemed 
in  Japan  that  as  much  as  300?.  has  been  paid  for  a  single 
specimen.  The  Chinese  call  this  ware  snake-porcelain  ;  and 
the  French  apply  to  it  the  term  porcelame  iruitee.  But  the 
perfection  of  the  ceramic  art  among  the  Chinese  is  exhibited 
in  their  egg-shell  porcelain,  which  is  thin  and  transparent, 
and  resembles  an  egg-shell  in  appearance.  This  ware  is  col- 
ored citron-yellow  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  emperor,  and 
ruby  for  the  use  of  the  imperial  family.  The  porcelain  in 
common  use  in  China  is  brown,  the  inside  being  white,  and 
white  medallions  outside.  There  is  also  an  inferior  and  mod- 
ern porcelain,  manufactured  at  Canton,  and  known  as  Indian 
china.  But  all  the  specimens  of  Chinese  porcelain,  however 
beautiful  may  be  the  material  and  delicate  the  texture,  how- 
ever brilhant  the  color  and  pure  the  glaze,  the  form  and  the 
design  are  hideous.  It  has  been  remarked  that  the  vase  of 
the  humblest  Greek  potter  of  the  best  period  has  an  aesthetic 
value  far  surpassing  the  most  costly  productions  of  the  Ce- 
lestial Empire.  The  porcelain  of  Japan  is  in  better  taste  than 
that  of  China,  the  dragons  being  less  monstrous  and  the 
flowers  more  natural. 

After  the  introduction  of  Chinese  porcelain  into  Europe, 
many  attempts  were  made  during  two  centuries  to  imitate  it. 
The  first  successful  experiment  was  the  result  of  one  of  those 
accidents  which  are  doubtless  of  frequent  occurrence,  although 
the  quality  of  mind  required  to  take  advantage  of  them  is 
rare.  John  Frederick  Bottcher  was  an  apothecary's  assist- 
ant at  Berlin :  he  was  fond  of  chemistry,  and  conducted  his 
experiments  with  so  much  ardor  that  the  authorities  could  not 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  155 

resist  the  conclusion  that  he  was  practicing  the  black  art. 
He  found  it  convenient  to  make  his  escape  from  Berlin  and 
to  visit  Dresden,  where  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  Augustus  II., 
patronized  chemistry,  not  from  the  love  of  science,  but  from 
that  of  gold.  Bottcher  claimed  the  protection  of  the  elector, 
who  eagerly  inquired  of  him  respecting  the  transmutation  of 
the  baser  metals.  With  the  natural  frankness  of  his  charac- 
ter, Bottcher  confessed  his  ignorance,  but  was  disbelieved. 
Why  should  a  man  study  chemistry  except  to  enrich  himself? 
it  was  argued  ;  and  as  the  ^lector  was  already  patronizing 
the  alchemist  Tschirnhaus  in  his  endeavors  to  discover  the  art 
of  transmuting  old  age  into  youth,  by  means  of  the  elixir 
vitce,  he  associated  Bottcher  with  him,  with  strict  orders  not 
to  let  him  out  of  his  sight.  Bottcher  was  employed  to  seek 
after  the  philosopher's  stone  ;  and  in  the  course  of  his  experi- 
ments he  made  some  crucibles,  which,  on  being  fired,  pos- 
sessed many  of  the  characters  of  oriental  porcelain.  The 
vessels  were  made  from  a  brown  clay  found  near  Meissen, 
aud  they  were  of  a  reddish  tint.  When  the  result  was  brought 
before  the  elector  he  appreciated  its  importance ;  and  in  order 
that  Bottcher  might  pursue  the  inquiry  in  secret,  he  sent  him 
to  the  castle  of  Albrechtsburg,  near  Meissen,  where  he  was 
magnificently  entertained,  but  restrained  in  his  personal  lib- 
erty. So  much  importance  was  attached  to  the  secret,  that 
during  the  troubles  consequent  on  the  invasion  of  Saxony  by 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  Bottcher,  Tschirnhaus,  and  three 
workmen,  were  sent  to  the  fortress  of  Konigstein  on  the  Elbe, 
where  a  laboratory  was  prepared  for  them.  ]^ottcher's  fel- 
low-prisoners formed  a  plan  of  escape,  which  he  communica- 
ted to  the  commandant,  whereby  he  gained  favor  and  a  little 
more  personal  liberty.  In  1707  he  returned  to  Meissen, 
where  he  continued  to  prosecute  his  experiments,  delighting 
every  one  around  him  with  his  active  cheerfulness,  and  keeping 
up  the  spirits  of  the  workmen  during  the  furnace  operations, 
which  sometimes  lasted  sixty  hours  consecutively.  Tschirn- 
haus died  in  the  following  year,  and  Bottcher  enlarged  the 
scale  of  his  operations  ;  he  caused  a  new  furnace  to  be  erected, 
and  extended  the  time  of  firing  to  five  days  and  five  nights. 
The  elector  was  present  at  the  opening  of  the  furnace,  and 
expressed  his  satisfaction  at  the  progress  which  was  being 
made.     Up  to  this  time,  however,  the  only  result  was  a  kind 


166  Five  Black  Arts. 

of  red  and  white  stone-ware  ;  and  when,  in  1709,  Bottcher 
succeeded  in  producing  a  white  porcelain,  it  became  bent, 
and  cracked  in  the  fire.  The  progress,  however,  was  deemed 
to  be  sufficient  to  determine  Augustine  to  establish  a  manu- 
factory at  Meissen,  and  to  appoint  Bottcher  the  director.  In 
1715  the  new  factory  produced  a  beautiful  description  of  por- 
celain by  means  of  the  kaolin  of  Aue  in  the  Erzgebirge,  the 
discovery  of  which  was  made  by  an  ironmaster  of  the  dis- 
trict named  Schnorr.  This  man  had  observed,  while  riding 
near  the  place,  that  his  horse's  feet  stuck  in  a  soft  white  te- 
nacious earth,  and  it  occurred  to  him  that  if  this  earth  were 
dried  and  reduced  to  powder,  it  would  make  a  good  substi- 
tute for  hair-powder,  which  the  fashion  of  the  day  required, 
all  except  the  poor,  to  use.  Accordingly  he  manufactured  the 
powder  in  large  quantities,  and  found  a  ready  sale  for  it  in 
Dresden  and  elsewhere.  Bottcher's  valet  used  it,  and  so  in- 
creased the  weight  of  his  master's  wig  as  to  lead  to  inquiry ; 
and  finding  that  the  new  hair-powder  was  of  mineral  origin, 
the  idea  flashed  across  his  mind  that  this  white  powder  might 
be  useful  in  his  experiments.  He  made  the  attempt,  and  was 
delighted  to  find  that  he  had  at  length  discovered  the  long 
wished-for  material  for  making  white  porcelain.  The  secret 
so  curiously  obtained  was  for  a  long  time  as  carefully  guarded. 
The  powder  was  made  to  retain  its  commercial  name  of 
*'  Schnorr's  white  earth"  QSnorrische  weisse  Urde),  its 
export  was  forbidden,  and  it  was  introduced  into  the  factory 
in  sealed  barrels  by  persons  sworn  to  secrecy.  All  persons 
connected  with  the  factory  were  obliged  to  take  a  similar 
oath  ;  no  visitor  was  admitted;  and  the  factory  was  regulated 
after  the  manner  of  a  fortress.  The  motto  in  large  letters, 
"  Be  secret  unto  death"  (^Geheim  Ms  ins  G-rah)^  was  set  up 
in  each  room ;  the  oath  to  the  workmen  was  renewed  every 
month ;  and  when  the  king  or  any  distinguished  visitor  was 
allowed  to  enter  the  factory,  a  similar  obligation  was  im- 
posed on  him. 

But  all  this  parade  of  secrecy  would  make  it  clear  to  the 
most  ill-informed  workmen  that  the  secret  had  a  high  mark- 
etable value,  and  we  cannot  wonder  that  it  should  have  been 
sold  to  one  or  other  of  the  monarchs  of  Europe,  most  of  whom 
were  ambitious  to  manufacture  oriental  porcelain.  Bottcher 
died  in  1719,  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven,  but  before  his  pre- 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  157 

mature  death,  a  foreman  had  escaped  from  the  factory,  and 
proceeding  to  Vienna,  submitted  to  be  bribed,  and  it  was  not 
long  before  rival  factories  sprang  up  in  different  parts  of 
Germany.  A  few  years  ago  the  writer  visited  the  Meissen 
factory,  which  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Elbe  ;  it  still  retains  something  of  its  fortress  character,  al- 
though the  workshops  are  light  and  cheerful.  The  principal 
room  is  adorned  with  the  bust  of  Bottcher.  The  factory, 
however,  has  lost  its  former  vigor :  an  air  of  lassitude  seems 
to  pervade  the  place,  and  neither  there  nor  at  Sdvres  are  we 
impressed  with  the  idea  that  the  work  is  being  done  in  earn- 
est, as  it  is  at  such  an  establishment  as  Minton's  at  Stoke 
upon-Trent.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  private  enterprise, 
unshackled  by  state  restrictions,  is  the  only  healthy  condition 
of  the  useful  arts.  A  royal  factory,  which  can  neither  be- 
come bankrupt  nor  meet  with  the  wholesome  stimulus  of  com- 
petition, is  not  likely  to  be  worked  at  a  profit,  nor  to  inspire 
activity  in  its  attendants. 

The  temporary  success  of  the  Meissen  factory  depended 
on  the  singularity  of  its  position.  There  was  a  great  demand 
in  Europe  for  fine  porcelain,  and  Meissen  was  in  a  condition 
to  supply  it.  The  first  productions  of  the  factory  were  mostly 
imitations  of  oriental  patterns,  but  they  were  deficient  in  grace 
and  lightness.  There  was  a  marked  improvement  when  Kand- 
ler,  a  professional  sculptor,  was  appointed  in  1731  to  superin- 
tend the  modeling.  He  introduced  wreaths  and  bouquets, 
animals  and  groups  of  figures,  with  the  feeling  of  an  artist. 
The  works  were  arrested  by  the  Seven  Years'  War ;  but 
after  this  calamity  Meissen  became  celebrated  for  its  exquis- 
ite miniature  copies  of  the  best  works  of  the  Flemish  school, 
together  with  birds  and  insects,  painted  by  Lindenir,  and 
flowers  and  animals  by  the  best  artists.  In  1745,  when 
Frederick  of  Prussia  took  possession  of  Dresden,  he  obtained 
among  the  spoils  of  war  enormous  quantities  of  porcelain. 
He  also  removed  to  Berlin  some  of  the  workmen,  together 
with  the  models  and  moulds  of  the  finest  pieces.  Again,  in 
1759,  the  factory  was  plundered  and  its  archives  destroyed : 
it  revived  somewhat  under  Dietrich  the  painter,  Liich  the 
modeler,  Breicheisen,  and  the  sculptor  Fran9ois  Acier.  Grad- 
ually, however,  the  factory  ceased  to  be  profitable,  and  w^as 
for  many  years  maintained  at  a  loss ;  when  some  years  ago  the 


158  Five  Black  Akts. 

king  gave  it  up  to  the  finance  dejiartment  of  the  state.  The 
finest  works  of  art  are  no  longer  produced ;  and  it  is  also 
stated  that  the  beds  of  fine  clay  in  the  neighborhood  are 
nearly  exhausted,  and  that  an  inferior  material  from  Zittau  is 
used  instead.*  Various  marks  were  placed  on  different  pe- 
riods; the  first  mark  consisted  of  the  letters  A.  R.  (Augus- 
tus Rex),  and  was  placed  on  all  pieces  not  intended  for  sale. 
The  well-known  mark  of  the  electoral  swords,  crossed,  also 
distinguishes  Dresden  china.  Fac-similes  of  these  marks, 
and  of  the  marks  and  monograms  of  other  celebrated  Euro- 
pean potteries,  are  given  in  Mr.  Marryat's  work. 

Among  the  best  of  the  Dresden  works  are  groups  from 
antique  models ;  lace  figures,  so  called  from  the  fineness  of 
the  lace-work  in  the  dress ;  flowers,  evidently  studied  from 
nature ;  and  vases  richly  adorned  and  incrusted,  forming 
what  is  called  honey-comh  china.  But  even  during  the 
palmy  time  of  this  manufacture,  namely,  from  1731  to  1756, 
the  productions  were  sometimes  disfigured  by  the  highly  arti- 
ficial taste  of  the  age. 

The  first  rival  of  Meissen  was  the  porcelain  factory  of  Vi- 
enna, which  originated  in  1720,  in  consequence  of  the  per- 
jury of  a  Meissen  workman,  as  already  noticed.  The  fac- 
tory does  not,  however,  appear  to  have  flourished  until  warmed 
into  life  by  the  patronizing  smiles  of  Maria  Theresa  in  1744, 
and  of  the  Emperor  Joseph.  The  porcelain  of  Vienna  holds 
a  lower  rank  than  that  of  Dresden  or  of  Berlin.  It  is  not 
so  light  as  that  of  Dresden,  and  the  glazing  has  a  grayish 
tint.  Its  chief  feature  is  its  raised  and  gilded  work,  which 
are  in  good  taste,  and  of  late  years  the  application  in  relief  of 
solid  platinum  and  gold.  The  works  are  now  in  private  hands, 
and  the  chief  markets  for  the  sale  of  the  ware  are  in  Turkey, 
Russia,  and  Italy. 

As  the  Vienna  works  were  based  on  treachery,  so  was  the 
next  important  establishment  based  on  the  defection  of  a  Vi- 

*  This  statement  is  made  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Marryat ;  but  at  the 
time  we  are  writing  an  account  is  given  in  the  German  papers  of  an  order 
from  Paris  having  been  executed  at  Meissen,  consisting  of  portraits  of  the 
Emperor  and  Empress  of  the  French,  of  a  medallion  shape,  and  inclosed 
in  a  rich  porcelain  frame.  According  to  the  German  critics,  "  these  are  the 
finest  works  of  art  which  porcelain  painting  has  yet  produced."  If  this 
criticism  be  true,  or  even  partially  true,  the  Meissen  works  must  have  ex- 
perienced an  extraordinary  revival. 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  159 

ennese  workman.  A  celebrated  pottery  was  already  in  ex- 
istence at  the  village  of  Hochst  on  the  Nidda,  when  in  1740 
a  man  named  Ringler  undertook  to  superintend  the  manufac- 
ture of  porcelain  if  the  proprietors  would  introduce  it.  This 
man  appears  to  have  been  simply  a  knave  without  skill  or  in- 
vention ;  he  had  committed  to  writing  the  various  processes  of 
the  Vienna  establishment,  and  concealing  his  manuscript 
about  his  person,  consulted  it  every  time  he  had  to  give  out 
materials  to  the  workmen.  As  knavery  propagates  itself,  the 
workmen,  taking  advantage  of  Ringler's  fondness  for  wine, 
invited  him  to  a  feast,  where  they  made  him  helplessly  drunk 
— when  they  robbed  him  of  his  papers,  carefully  copied  his 
recipes,  and  then  decamped  to  other  parts  of  Germany, 
where  they  sold  the  secrets  to  those  who  were  anxious  for 
their  possession.  Hence  originated  from  one  source  the  por- 
celain factories  of  Switzerland,  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  of  Cassel, 
and  even  of  Berlin.  The  Fiirstenburg  works,  in  the  duchy 
of  Brunswick,  originated  in  a  bribe  offered  by  one  of  the  dukes 
to  a  Hochst  workman.  The  works  at  Frankenthal  in  Ba- 
varia originated  in  a  pottery  which  was  visited  by  Ringler 
after  he  had  been  plundered  of  his  papers.  The  factory  of 
Nymphenburg  in  Bavaria  had  a  similar  origin.  The  porce- 
lain of  this  factory  is  much  esteemed,  many  of  the  designs 
having  been  furnished  by  the  celebrated  picture-gallery  of 
Munich.  A  factory  at  Baden  was  conducted  by  some  of  the 
Hochst  workmen  until  1778.  The  factory  of  Ludwigsburg, 
begun  in  1768  under  the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Wirtem- 
berg,  has  executed  some  beautiful  works,  which  are  known 
as  Croneiibarg  porcelain,  from  the  town  of  that  name,  and 
the  mark  CC  on  its  wares.  The  distance  from  which  the 
clay  and  the  fuel  had  to  be  procured  prevented  the  suc- 
cess of  this  establishment.  The  porcelain  factory  of  Ber- 
lin was  first  undertaken  in  consequence  of  the  information 
supplied  by  the  men  who  robbed  Ringler  ;  but  it  was  not  very 
successful  until  a  more  magnificent  fraud  had  been  perpe- 
trated, namely,  the  transference  of  the  best  of  the  work- 
people, and  the  material  of  the  Meissen  factory,  as  already 
referred  to.  The  Berlin  porcelain  was,  of  course,  only  an 
imitation  of  the  Dresden,  but  the  factory  was  carried  on  with 
such  vigor  as  to  yield  to  the  king  an  annual  revenue  of 
200,000  crowns.     In  1790  a  second  royal  porcelain  factory 


160  Five  Black  Arts. 

was  established  about  two  miles  from  Berlin.  To  one  of 
Ringler's  fraudulent  comrades  is  also  due  the  factory  estab- 
lished at  Fulda,  about  1763.  The  prince-bishop  of  Fulda 
established  another  factory  in  a  house  adjoining  the  episco- 
pal palace  ;  but  it  is  said  to  have  failed  in  consequence  of  the 
taste  for  porcelain  extending  to  the  dignitaries  of  the  church, 
who  claimed  the  privilege  of  carrying  off  specimens  without 
paying  for  them.  The  porcelain  factories  of  Thuringia 
originated  about  1758,  when  an  old  woman  having  sold  some 
sand  at  the  house  of  the  chemist  Macheleid,  his  son,  struck 
by  its  appearance,  experimented  on  it,  and  obtained  by  its 
means  a  porcelain-looking  substance,  whereupon  the  Prince 
of  Schwartzburg  sanctioned  the  erection  of  a  factory  at  Sitz- 
erode,  which  was  afterward  removed  to  Yolkstadt.  The  abund- 
ance of  fuel  supplied  by  the  Thuringian  forest  led  to  the  erection 
of  other  factories,  such  as  that  of  VVallendorf  in  Saxe-Coburg, 
Limbach  in  Saxe-Meinengen,  the  director  of  which  succeeded 
so  well  as  to  be  able  to  purchase  the  factory  of  Grosbreiten- 
bach  in  Rudelstadt,  and  also  that  of  Kloster  Veilsdorf.  Fac- 
tories were  also  founded  at  Gotha  in  1780,  at  Hildburghaus, 
at  Anspach,  at  Ilmenau,  at  Britenbach,  and  at  Gera.  All 
these  factories  had  their  periods  of  prosperity,  and  produced 
porcelain  which  is  still  esteemed  by  collectors.  Some  of 
them  have  degenerated  into  potteries,  and  some  produce  pipe- 
bowls  as  their  only  article  in  porcelain.  Nor  will  our  list  ap- 
proach completeness  without  mentioning  a  factory  established 
by  the  Empress  Elizabeth  in  1756,  near  St.  Petersburg, 
which  still  continues  to  produce  good  porcelain  from  native 
materials.  Denmark  has  a  factory  at  Copenhagen  ;  it  is  sup- 
ported by  the  government,  but  is  said  to  be,  commercially,  a 
failure.  The  factory  at  Zurich  in  Switzerland  was  established 
on  the  information  supplied  by  one  of  Ringler's  workmen. 
A  factory  at  Nyons,  in  the  Canton  de  Vaud,  has  also  pro- 
duced some  good  porcelain. 

During  all  this  active  rivalry  on  the  Continent  it  will  not 
be  supposed  that  England  had  escaped  the  porcelain-making 
mania.  Bow  and  Chelsea  produced  the  first  porcelain  works. 
They  made  a  soft  ware  from  a  mixture  of  white  clay,  white 
sand  from  Alum  Bay,  and  pounded  glass.  The  Chelsea  works 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  in  a  very  flourishing  condition 
until  George  II.  imported  workmen,  models,  and  materials 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  161 

from  Brunswick  and  Saxony.  Chelsea  porcelain  then  became 
the  rage,  and  such  was  the  eagerness  to  obtain  it,  that  it  was 
sold  by  auction  to  the  highest  bidders,  the  dealers  rushing  in 
crowds  to  compete  for  it.  Some  of  the  best  works  were  pro- 
duced between  1750  and  1755  :  they  are  in  the  style  of  the 
best  German  ;  the  colors  are  fine  and  vivid,  and  the  claret 
color  is  peculiar.  Bow  china,  made  at  Stratford-le-Bow,  has 
some  resemblance  to  that  of  Chelsea,  but  the  material  is  not 
so  good.  Its  principal  productions  were  tea-services  and 
dessert-sets.  In  1750  was  established  the  factory  at  Derby, 
which  became  important  in  consequence  of  the  introduction 
of  the  Chelsea  artists,  workmen,  and  models,  the  junction  of 
the  two  factories  being  notified  by  the  anchor  and  the  letter 
D,  the  monograms  of  each  manufacture.  Flaxman  furnished 
designs  for  the  establishment ;  but  the  union  did  not  continue 
long;  the  partners  quarreled,  and  one  of  them  destroyed  the 
models.  Mr.  Marryat  describes  the  Derby  porcelain  as  be- 
ing very  transparent,  of  fine  quality,  and  distinguished  by  a 
beautiful  bright  blue,  often  introduced  on  the  border  or  edge 
of  the  tea-services,  the  ground  being  generally  plain ;  the 
white-biscuit  figures  are  said  to  equal  those  of  Sc^vres.  The 
Worcester  works  were  established  in  1751  by  Dr.  Wall 
and  some  others,  under  the  name  of  the  Worcester  Porce- 
lain Company.  The  company  first  imitated  the  blue  and 
white  Nankin  china ;  they  afterward  adopted  the  S^wres 
style,  with  the  Dresden  method  of  painting.  These  works 
are  remarkable  as  being  the  first  to  make  use  of  the  Cornish 
stone  or  kaolin,  discovered  by  Cook  worthy  in  1768.  They 
are  still  carried  on  with  distinguished  success  by  Messrs.  Kerr 
and  Binns.  In  1772  a  factory  was  established  at  Caughley, 
near  Broseley,  Colebrook  Dale,  the  productions  of  which  are 
known  as  Salopian  ware.  Early  in  the  present  century  some 
good  porcelain  was  made  at  Nantgarrow  and  Swansea ;  it  is 
also  stated  that  the  Bristol  china,  a  white  ware  formerly  com- 
mon in  the  west  of  England,  was  made  in  Wales,  and  sold  in 
Bristol. 

France  regarded  with  impatience  during  sixty  years  the 
progress  of  porcelain  in  Europe,  and  although  eminently  quali- 
fied in  point  of  taste,  skill,  and  science  to  contribute  to  the 
ceramic  treasures  of  the  world,  she  was  unable  to  compete 
with  other  nations  for  want  of  a  suitable  raw  material.  It 
11 


162  Five  Black  Arts. 

is  true  that  as  early  as  1695  a  soft  porcelain  had  been  man- 
ufactured at  St.  Cloud,  and  that  some  of  the  scientific  men 
of  France  had  endeavored,  under  royal  patronage,  to  discover 
the  secrets  of  the  art,  but  no  great  success  was  attained. 
The  company  had  been  established  at  Vincennes,  but  in  1756 
they  removed  to  a  large  building  which  they  had  erected  at 
Sevres.  In  1760  Louis  XV.  bought  up  the  establishment, 
probably  at  the  instigation  of  Madame  de  Pompadour,  who 
seems  to  have  shared  with  her  sex  the  passion  for  china.  The 
factory  became  celebrated  for  its  porcelain,  or  pate  tendre,  but 
the  great  point  aimed  at  was  to  produce  the  hard  porcelain 
which  had  rendered  Saxony  the  envy  of  Europe.  But  kaolin 
was  not  known  in  France,  nor  was  its  presence  even  suspected, 
until  about  1768,  when  the  wife  of  a  surgeon  named  Darnet  of 
St.  Yrieix,  near  Limoges,  having  noticed  in  a  ravine  near  the 
town  a  wliite  unctuous  earth,  thought  that  she  might  relieve 
her  husband's  poverty  somewhat  by  using  it  in  her  house  in- 
stead of  soap.  The  surgeon  showed  a  portion  of  the  substance 
to  an  apothecary  of  Bordeaux,  who  being  aware  of  the  search 
that  was  being  made  for  porcelain  earth,  forwarded  a  speci- 
men to  the  chemist  Macquer,  who  recognized  it  as  the  much- 
desired  kaolin.  Assuring  himself  that  an  abundant  supply 
could  be  had,  he  established  the  manufacture  of  hard  porce- 
lain at  Sevres  in  1769.  At  first  some  difficulty  was  experi- 
enced in  managing  the  colors  upon  the  more  compact  and 
less  absorbent  material,  so  that  the  soft  porcelain  continued 
to  be  made  until  the  year  1804. 

Such,  in  few  words,  is  the  origin  of  the  hard  porcelain  of 
Sevres.  The  pate  tendre  was  not  considered  as  real  porce- 
lain, but  the  taste  and  skill  of  the  French  are  remarkable  in 
carrying  it  to  the  highest  pitch  of  perfection  under  many  diffi- 
culties, arising  from  its  complicated  and  expensive  composi- 
tion, and  from  its  liability  to  collapse  during  the  firing.  Mr. 
Marryat  speaks  of  it  as  being  "  remarkable  for  its  creamy 
and  pearly  softness  of  color,  the  beauty  of  its  painting,  and 
its  depth  of  glaze."  The  ware  for  common  or  domestic  use 
had  generally  a  plain  ground,  painted  with  flowers  in  patterns 
or  medallions ;  articles  de  luxe,  and  pieces  intended  for  royal 
use,  had  commonly  grounds  of  various  colors,  such  as  bleu  de 
roi,  bleu  turquoise,  jonquille,  or  yellow,  vert  pres,  or  green, 
and  a  lively  pink  or  rose  color,  named  after  Madame  Dubarry . 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  163 

Skillful  artists  were  employed  upon  the  finest  porcelain,  which 
is  adorned  with  landscapes,  flowers,  birds,  bojs,  and  cupids 
gracefully  arranged  in  medallions.  Some  of  the  specimens 
are  painted  with  subjects  after  AVatteau,  and  other  known 
masters.  The  jeweled  cups,  with  the  blue  de  roi  ground  are 
celebrated.  The  best  period  of  the  soft  porcelain  was  from 
1740  to  1769,  and  the  tests  which  Mr.  Marryat  gives  to  dis- 
tinguish it  form  its  highest  praise,  namely,  '^  the  beauty  of 
the  painting,  the  richness  of  the  gilding,  and  the  depth  of 
color."  In  point  of  form  the  Sevres  china  is  not  equal  to 
that  of  Dresden.  A  law  was  passed  in  1766,  and  renewed 
in  1784,  limiting  the  use  of  gold  in  the  decoration  of  porce- 
lain to  the  royal  manufactory  of  Sevres,  which  accounts  for 
the  rarity  of  old  French  gilded  porcelain. 

At  the  time  of  the  Revolution  many  fine  specimens  of  Sev- 
res porcelain  in  the  royal  palaces  and  mansions  of  the  nobility 
were  destroyed.  The  establishment  of  Sevres,  however,  was 
supported  by  the  revolutionary  government,  who  appointed 
three  commissioners  to  manage  it.  In  the  year  1800  the 
first  consul  appointed  M.  Brongniart  as  director.  He  held 
the  appointment  during  forty-seven  years,  and  originated  the 
celebrated  Musee  Ceramique,  consisting  of  a  historical  series  of 
specimens  illustrative  of  the  ceramic  art  in  all  times  and  among 
all  people,  together  with  a  collection  of  raw  materials,  tools 
implements,  trial-pieces,  models  of  furnaces,  etc.  On  our 
visit  to  this  museum,  we  were  particularly  struck  with  a  col- 
lection 0^  failures,  or  specimens  showing  what  had  been  done 
to  overcome  faulty  results,  and  what  it  was  hopeless  to  at- 
tempt. M.  Brongniart  is  also  the  author  of  a  classical  work 
on  the  art  to  which  he  devoted  his  life  with  such  distinguished 
success.*  M.  Ebelman  succeeded  Brongniart  as  diiector. 
and  held  the  appointment  for  a  year  or  two.  The  present 
director,  M.  Regnault,  was  appointed  by  the  Emperor  Na- 
poleon III. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  celebrated  porcelain 
manufactures  of  France  :  Chantilly,  which  owed  its  origin 
in  1735  to  a  workman  from  St.  Cloud;  Menecy,  founded  in 
1735  under  the  patronage  of  the  Due  de  Viileroi ;   Sceaux- 

*  Traitd  dcs  Arts  Cdramiques  ou  des  Poteries  cousiderees  dans  leur  his- 
toire,  leur  pratique,  et  leur  theorie,  par  Alexandre  Brongniart,  etc,,  etc.  2 
vols.  8vo,  with  au  Atlas  of  plates.    Paris,  1844. 


164  Five  Black  Arts. 

penthi^vre,  established  in  1751 ;  Clignancourt,  1750,  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans ;  Etiolles,  near  Cor- 
boil,  1766;  Bourg  la  Rt-ine,  Paris,  1733.  Lille,  estab- 
lished, it  is  supposed,  in  170^,  when  the  Dutch  were  masters 
of  the  town;  Arras,  1782;  Tournay,  11^)0.  At  St.  Amand 
les  Eaux,  near  Valenciennes,  and  at  Tournay  in  Belgium, 
are  two  factories,  the  only  two  in  Europe  where  the  old  pate 
tendre  of  Sevres  is  still  produced. 

As  respects  Icaly,  a  factory  was  established  at  Doccia, 
near  Florence,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Venice  also  manufactured  porcelain  until  1812.  There  was 
also  a  factory  at  Vineuf,  near  Turin ;  but  the  most  famous 
factory  in  Italy  is  the  Capo  di  Monti  at  Naples,  founded  by 
Charles  III.  in  1736.  This  sovereign  appears  to  have  ex- 
celled the  other  royal  amateurs  of  Europe  in  the  ardor  with 
which  he  cultivated  the  ceramic  art,  and  he  even  surpassed 
Augustus  III.,  who  was  nicknamed  by  Frederick  of  Prussia 
"  the  Porcelain  King,"  and  who  exchanged  a  whole  regiment 
of  dragoons  for  some  huge  useless  china  vases.  Charles  III. 
even  worked  in  the  factory  with  his  own  hands,  and  held  an 
annual  fair  in  front  of  the  royal  palace  at  Naples,  where  there 
there  was  a  shop  for  the  sale  of  the  royal  productions ;  and  there 
was  no  more  certain  road  to  the  king's  favor  than  to  become  a 
purchaser.  When  Charles  became  king  of  Spain  he  founded  a 
factory  at  Madrid,  and  that  at  Naples  declined.  His  suc- 
cessor Ferdinand  sanctioned  the  erection  of  other  porcelain 
works,  and  allowed  the  royal  workmen  to  assist  in  their  form- 
ation; and  they  appear  not  only  to  have  assisted  but  to  have 
robbed  the  parent  factory  of  its  gold  and  silver  models  and 
other  valuables.  The  royal  factory  was  closed  in  1821.  The 
porcelain  of  Capo  di  Monti  is  not,  as  is  commonly  the  case, 
an  imitation  of  that  of  some  rival  factory.  Its  beauty  and 
excellence  are  due  to  the  design  from  shells,  corals,  embossed 
figures,  etc  ,  artistically  moulded  in  high  relief.  Mr.  Mar- 
ryat  regards  the  tea  and  coffee  services  of  this  ware  as  per- 
haps the  most  beautiful  porcelain  articles  ever  produced  in 
Europe,  for  transparency,  thinness  of  the  paste,  elegance  of 
form,  and  gracefully-twisted  serpent  handles,  as  also  for  the 
delicate  modeling  of  the  ornamental  groups  in  high  relief, 
painted  and  gilt,  contrasting  well  with  the  plain  ground.  The 
factory  at  Madrid  was  conducted  with  the  utmost  secrecy 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — History.  165 

during  several  reigns,  but  was  destroyed  bj  the  French  in 
1812.  Portugal  has  a  factory  of  hard  porcelain  near  Oporto. 
The  prices  paid  for  porcelain  are  high.  As  much  as  150/. 
has  been  paid  tor  a  single  specimen  of  majolica;  while  a 
service  of  Chelsea  ware  has  cost  1200/.  One  of  Sdvres,  of 
a  good  period,  30,000  livres;  while  the  Dresden  ware  was 
equally  costly.  Although  our  modern  manufacturers  have 
produced  porcelain  rivaling  that  of  the  best  periods  of  cele- 
brated works,  the  price  still  continues  to  be  necessarily  high, 
where  the  materials  require  to  be  treated  with  the  precision  of 
a  chemical  process,  ond  the  design  and  ornamentation  require 
high  artistic  skill.  Mr.  Minton  received  1000/.  for  his  service 
of  turquoise  and  Parian ;  Lord  Hertford  gave  1000/.  for  two 
vases;  Mr.  Mills  the  same;  one  of  the  Queen's  vases  has 
been  valued  at  1000/.,  and  Lord  Ward  gave  1500/.  for  a  des- 
sert service  of  Sevres.  Such  works  as  these,  however,  be- 
long rather  to  the  fine  arts  than  the  useful  arts,  to  be  preserved 
in  cabinets  and  museums.  Formerly  it  was  customary  on 
great  occasions  to  serve  the  guests  on  porcelain,  which  gave 
to  wealth  a  real  distinction.  In  those  days  the  transition 
from  porcelain  to  earthenware  was  abrupt ;  but  through  the 
exertions  of  Wedgwood  and  others,  porcelain  now  descends 
through  numerous  varieties  of  material,  style,  taste,  and  dec- 
oration ;  so  that  every  class  of  consumer  may  suit  his  own 
taste  and  means.  Our  trade  in  earthenware  has  of  late 
years  gone  on  increasing.  In  the  year  1835  the  declared 
value  of  earthenware  exported  from  the  United  Kingdom 
was  540,421/. ;  in  the  year  1857  it  amounted  to  1,488,(568/. 
Our  exports  extend  to  most  parts  of  the  world,  including 
Russia,  Austria,  Turkey,  and  even  France.  The  United 
States  of  America  take  nearly  the  half  of  our  exports  in 
earthenware,  so  little  has  the  potter's  art  been  encouraged  in 
the  New  World.*  Our  exports  to  foreign  countries  would 
doubtless  be  larger  if  the  restrictions  were  fewer  and  less 
clumsy.  In  Germany  and  Italy  the  duty  is  levied  on  the 
weight;  so  that  Wedgwood,  on  account  of  the  lightness  of  his 
ware,  was  long  able  to  command  the  market  in  those  states. 
In  France  the  duty  on  common  English  china  of  one  color, 
without  gilding  or  ornament,  is  lu4  francs  per  1000  kilo- 

*  Stoae-ware  is  extansivcly  manafactured  in  Northern  Ohio. 


166  Five  Black  Arts. 

grammes  (200  lbs.) ;  for  fine  china,  327  francs  for  the  same 
quantity.  The  most  whimsical  of  all  tariffs  is  that  of  Portu- 
gal, where  the  charge  is  according  to  the  number  of  colors; 
so  that,  as  Mr.  Wall  remarks,  "  no  man's  pojket  could  stand 
the  choice  of  a  rainbow  pattern.'' 

THE  MATERIALS. 

Clay,  which  forms  the  basis  of  pottery  and  earthenware,  is 
not  only  abundant  and  widely  diffused,  but  presents  so  many 
varieties  that  much  experience  and  judgment  are  required  in 
adapting  the  kind  of  clay  to  the  article  to  be  manufactured. 
Brongniart  enumerates  167  varieties  of  clay,  and  states  their 
physical  and  chemical  characters,  composition,  locality,  and 
application.  Some  of  the  commonest  varieties  of  clay  con- 
sist of —  1.  Pipe  clay.  It  has  a  grayish-white  color,  a 
smooth  greasy  feel,  an  earthy  fracture ;  it  adheres  to  the  tongue, 
and  is  plastic,  tenacious,  and  infusible.  It  becomes  of  a  cream 
color  when  fired ;  and  is  used  for  tobacco-pipes  and  white  pot- 
tery. It  is  found  near  Poole  in  Dorsetshire. — 2.  Po^ter^s 
clay.  This  is  of  various  colors  ;  those  used  in  the  Stafford- 
shire potteries  are  the  brown  and  blue  clays  from  Dorsetshire,* 
and  black  and  cracking  clays  from  Devonshire.  The  color 
of  the  black  clay  is  due  to  bitumen  or  coaly  matter,  which 
disappears  in  passing  through  the  kiln;  so  that  the  wares 
formed  of  it  are  almost  white.  Cracking  clay  is  esteemed  on 
account  of  its  whiteness,  but  as  it  is  liaMe  to  crack  during 
the  firing,  it  must  be  mixed  with  other  clays  which  are  free 
from  this  defect.  Brown  clay  when  passed  through  the  gloss 
oven  sometimes  causes  the  glaze  to  crack,  or  craze,  as  it  is 
called.  For  ordinary  purposes  blue  clny  is  preferred  ;  it  can 
be  mixed  with  a  larger  proportion  of  flint  than  the  other  va- 
rieties, and  thus  produces  a  white  ware.  Potter's  clay,  mixed 
with  sand,  is  formed  into  bricks  and  tiles. — 3.  Stourbridge 
clay.  This  is  of  a  dark  color,  from  the  presence  of  carbon- 
aceous matter,  and  from  its  being  more  refractory  than  pot- 
ter's clay,  it  is  largely  employed  for  glass  pots,  crucibles,  etc. 
4.  Brick  clay  or  loam  is  abundantly  met  with  on  the  Loudon 
clay,  and  is  often  found  on  an  interposed  bed  of  sand.     Its 

*  In  the  year  1855  there  were  exported  from  Poole  in  Dorsetshire  53,702 
tons  of  Pcole  clay,  and  582  tons  were  sent  to  London  by  railway. 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — Materials.  167 

appearance,  texture,  and  composition  vary  greatly;  and  the 
color  depends  on  the  proportion  of  oxide  of  iron  contained  in 
it. — 5.  London  day.  This  is  an  extensive  deposit  of  bluish 
clay:  althou<j^h  near  the  surface,  it  frequently  has  the  usual 
clay  color.  It  extends  over  the  greater  part  of  Middlesex, 
a  portion  of  Norfolk,  and  the  whole  of  Essex  and  Suffolk. 
It  is  often  found  near  the  surface  ;  but  the  lower  beds  are 
sometimes  yellowish,  white,  or  variegated.  Organic  remains 
are  found  in  it. — 6.  Plastic  day.  This  skirts  the  London 
clay  within  the  London  chalk  basin,  and  is  also  found  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight.  This  formation  comprises  a  number  of  sand, 
clay,  and  pebble  beds,  alternating  irregularly,  and  lying  im- 
mediately on  the  chalk. 

The  above  varieties  of  clay  are  mixed  with  such  substances 
as  carbonate  of  lime,  magnesia,  protoxide  of  iron,  manganese, 
finely-divided  quartz,  felspar,  mica,  organic  matter,  etc.,  which 
greatly  modify  its  properties  and  applications.  Pure  clay  is 
soft,  more  or  less  unctuous  to  the  touch,  white  and  opaque, 
and  has  a  characteristic  odor  when  breathed  upon.  It  is  a 
compound,  or  perhaps  only  a  mixture,  of  the  two  earths,  alu- 
mina and  silica,  with  water.  Silicate  of  alumina  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  many  crystalized  minerals, 
among  which  is  felspar,  so  abundant  an  ingredient  in  granite, 
porphyry,  and  other  ancient  unstratified  rocks.  Under  cer- 
tain circumstances  the  felspar  undergoes  decomposition,  and  is 
converted  into  a  soft  friable  mass.  In  certain  districts  of 
Devonshire  and  Cornwall  the  felspar  of  the  white  granite  is 
often  disintegrated  to  a  great  depth,  and  the  rock  becomes 
converted  into  a  substance  resembling  soft  mortar.  This  be- 
ing collected,  is  thrown  into  a  stream  of  running  water,  which 
washes  off  the  argillaceous  portions,  and  holds  them  suspended 
while  the  heavier  quartz  and  mica  subside.  At  the  extrem- 
ity of  these  streams  the  water  is  dammed  up,  forming  catch- 
pools,  where  the  pure  clay  sinks  and  forms  a  solid  mass,  which, 
when  the  water  has  been  drawn  off,  is  dug  out  in  blocks,  and 
placed  on  shelves  called  linnees  to  dry.  It  is  next  stove- 
dried,  crushed,  packed  in  casks,  and  sent  to  the  potteries, 
under  the  name  of  china  clay,  or  kaolin.  It  consists  of  80 
parts  alumina  and  20  silica ;  a  proportion  of  undecomposed 
felspar,  under  the  name  of  china-stone,  is  sometimes  added 
to  the  ingredients  for  porcelain.     In  the  year  1855  as  much 


168  Five  Black  Arts. 

as  60,188  tons  of  china  clay  was  shipped  from  Cornwall,  and 
19,9(31  of  china-stone ;  while  Devonshire  shipped  20,000  tons 
of  pipe  claj,  and  1100  of  china  clay.  Of  late  years  im- 
proved methods  have  been  adopted  for  getting  out  the  china 
clay  in  Cornwall.  At  the  Lee  Moor  clay-works,  for  example, 
Mr.  Pliillips,  the  managing  director,  has  introduced  the  follow- 
ing arrangements:  The  decomposed  felspar  is  transferred 
directly  from  the  quarry  to  the  works,  where  it  is  thrown  into 
hoppers,  and  pa.^ses  into  a  trough  under  the  action  of  a  full 
stream  of  water,  encountering  on  its  way  a  series  of  knives  and 
iron  arras  furnished  with  teeth,  which  thoroughly  beat  up  the 
clay  in  its  passage  along  the  trough.  Pure  spring-vvater  is  used 
in  the  operation,  and  great  care  is  taken  to  exclude  the  sur- 
face drainage  from  the  peat  soil  of  Dartmoor.  As  the  water 
leaves  the  trough  it  flows  through  sieves  which  separate  the 
coarser  fragments  of  quartz,  and  the  fluid,  charged  with  clay 
and  mica,  passes  on  ;  the  mica  breaking  up  into  thin  scales, 
has  a  tendency  to  float,  but  being  heavier  than  the  suspended 
alumina,  it  gradually  subsides  under  the  regulation  of  the 
current,  which  is  now  not  sufficiently  rapid  to  carry  on  the 
mica,  nor  sufficiently  sluggish  to  allow  of  the  deposition  of  the 
clay.  When  at  length  the  stream  holds  nothing  but  pure  clay, 
it  is  allowed  to  flow  into  deep  V-shaped  channels,  which  term- 
inate in  large  covered  reservoirs,  in  which  the  clay  is  deposit- 
ed. Warm-air  pipes  circulate  beneath  the  reservoirs,  so  as 
produce  a  temperature  of  90°.  The  fine  clay  soon  subsides, 
so  as  to  allow  of  the  clear  water  above  it  being  drawn  off. 
The  mineral  pegmatite  is  also  valuable,  as  containing  all  the 
ingredients  for  hard  porcelain.  It  consists  of  felspar,  kaolin, 
and  a  small  proportion  of  prismatic  quartz.  The  mineral 
must,  however,  be  in  the  state  of  decomposition  already  re- 
ferred to.  The  quartz  gives  whiteness  and  transparency  to 
hard  ware ;  but  for  soft  porcelain  bones  are  substituted. 
These  melt  into  a  kind  of  semi-transparent  enamel,  which 
imparts  transparency  to  the  ware.  Steatite^  or  soap-atone^  is 
also  an  ingredient  in  porcelain.  The  statuary  porcelain 
known  as  Parian  or  Carrara^  from  its  similarity  to  those 
beautiful  marbles,  owes  its  cff*ect  chiefly  to  the  use  of  a  soft 
felspar  instead  of  Cornish  stone ;  while  its  agreeable  yellow- 
ish-white tint  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  small  portion  of 
oxide  of  iron  contained  in  the  clays  and  the  felspar. 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — Materials.  169 

The  property  possessed  by  clay  of  forming  a  perfectly 
plastic  mass  with  water,  and  of  bein^  permanently  fixed  by 
heat,  has  led  to  its  employment  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks 
and  vessels  of  various  kinds,  but  it  undergoes  a  large  amount 
of  contraction  in  drying  and  burning,  to  diminish  which  the 
clay  is  usually  mixed  with  a  considerable  proportion  of  quartz- 
sand,  or  with  the  powder  of  previously-burnt  clay.  The 
quartz  in  pottery  ware  is  in  the  form  of  flints;  these  are  ob- 
tained from  the  chalk  districts  of  Gravesend  and  Newhaven; 
they  are  white  outside,  but  dark  and  clear  within.  Such 
flints  should  be  selected  the  fracture  of  which  is  free  from 
yellow  or  iron  stains. 

The  preparation  of  the  clay  for  such  coarse  articles  as  tiles 
consists  first  in  weathering,  or  spreading  it  out  to  the  action 
of  the  air,  so  that  by  absorbing  water  the  articles  may  sep- 
arate, and  the  clay  work  freely.  It  should  be  exposed  to  at 
least  one  night's  frost,  or  to  one  day's  sun,  before  a  second 
layer  is  added  to  the  first.  The  weather-clay  is  cast  into 
pits,  and  left  for  some  time  covered  with  water  to  melloto  or 
ripen.  Before  being  used  it  is  tempered  by  grinding  in  a 
pug-mill.  If  the  clay  befoul,  or  contain  many  stones,  it  is 
slung,  or  cut  into  lengths  of  about  two  feet  with  a  sling  or 
wire-knife,  and  then  further  divided  into  slices  of  tliree- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  during  which  operation  the 
stones  fall  out,  or  are  picked  out.  The  clay  goes  once  more 
through  the  pug-mill,  and  is  then  ready  for  the  m»)ulder. 
For  chimney-pots  and  such  articles  the  clay  is  slung  once  or 
twice,  and  pugged  or  ground  two  or  three  times. 

The  clay  for  fine  pottery  undergoes  a  number  of  prepara- 
tory processes.  Two  or  more  kinds  of  clay  being  put  to- 
gether in  proportions  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  man- 
ufacturer, they  are  thrown  into  a  trough  with  water  and  left 
for  some  hours.  They  are  then  well  worked  with  a  long  blade 
of  ash  furnished  with  a  cross-handle,  named  a  blunger,  until 
a  smooth  pulp  is  formed,  a  pint  of  which  weighs  24  ounces, 
or,  in  the  case  of  china  clay,  26  ounces.  The  operation  of 
blunging,  as  it  is  called,  may  be  assisted  by  pugging  the  clay 
in  an  iron  cylinder  furnished  with  knives  on  the  inside,  and  a 
moving  vertical  axis  also  containing  knives,  which  by  their 
joint  action  divide  the  clay,  and  by  their  position  force  it 
downward,  and  out  through  an  opening  at  the  bottom.     It  is 


170  Five  Black  Arts. 

then  removed  to  a  vat,  mixed  with  water,  and  bluno;ed  by 
means  of  cross-arms  attached  to  a  perpendicular  shaft.  In 
this  operation  stony  particles  sink  to  the  bottom. 

The  flints  having  been  heated  in  a  kiln,  and  plunged  in 
cold  water  to  increase  their  brittleness,  are  crushed  into  frag- 
ments by  means  of  stampers,  and  are  next  reduced  to  pow- 
der in  Si  flint-pan.  This  is  a  circular  vat  ten  or  twelve  feet 
in  diameter,  the  bottom  of  which  consists  of  masonry  of 
quartz  or  felspar.  In  the  center  is  a  vertical  axis,  from  which 
radiate  four  arms  for  moving  the  runners  :  these  are  masses 
of  chert,  a  hard  siliceous  stone  found  near  Bake  well  in  Der- 
byshire. The  broken  flints  are  thus  ground  with  water,  and 
in  the  course  of  some  hours  arc  reduced  to  powder,  which 
forms  with  the  water  a  creamy  mixture^  Felspar,  broken 
porcelain,  etc.,  is  sometimes  ground  up  in  the  same  manner 
in  smaller  vats.  The  creamy  mixture  is  transferred  to  an- 
other vat  furnished  with  a  vertical  shaft  and  arms,  and  being 
diluted  with  water,  the  arms  are  set  rotating,  the  effect  of 
which  is  to  keep  the  finer  siliceous  particles  suspended,  while 
the  coarser  ones  sink  to  the  bottom.  The  former  are  drawn 
oflf  with  the  water,  and  the  latter  are  sent  back  to  the  flint- 
pan.  The  water  thus  drawn  off  is  received  into  a  reservoir, 
in  which  the  finer  particles  subside.  The  creamy  mixture  of 
flint  and  water  is  fit  to  mix  with  the  clay  when  a  wine  pint  of 
it  weighs  32  ounces.  The  proportions,  however,  in  which  the 
clay  and  the  flint  are  mingled  vary  greatly  with  the  kind  of 
ware  intended  to  be  made,  and  the  experience  of  the  manu- 
facturer. 

These  proportions  being  determined,  the  ingredients  are 
first  mingled  by  being  agitated  together,  after  which  the  mix- 
ture is  passed  through  sieves  of  fine  hard-spun  silk,  arranged 
on  different  levels,  so  as  to  run  through  comparatively  coarse 
into  finer  sieves,  and  thus  produce  a  smooth,  uniform  mixture 
of  slip,  as  it  is  called.  To  assist  the  easy  passage  of  the  mix- 
ture a  jigging  motion  is  given  to  the  sieves.  The  water  which 
has  thus  far  served  as  a  vehicle  for  the  ingredients,  is  next  got 
rid  of  by  evaporation  in  the  slip-kiln.  This  is  a  long  brick 
trough,  heated  by  flues  underneath,  and  capable  of  raising 
the  water  to  the  boiling  point.  During  the  heating  the  slip 
is  diligently  stirred  to  prevent  the  heavier  flint  from  subsid- 
ing, and  also  to  prevent  the  flint  and  clay  from  forming  a 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — Manufacture.       lYl 

kind  of  mortar  with  the  water.  When  bubbles  of  steam  cease 
to  form,  the  operation  is  at  an  end.  In  countries  where  fuel 
is  not  so  abundant  as  in  England,  the  water  is  got  rid  of  by 
filtration,  assisted  by  mechanical  pressure,  or  by  rarefying 
the  air  beneath  the  filter  by  atmospheric  pressure. 

When  the  stuff  is  of  uniform  texture  and  sufficiently  hard, 
it  is  cut  up  into  wedges  which  are  dashed  down  upon  each 
other,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  vesicles  and  air- bubbles,  which 
might  afterward  form  blisters  in  the  ware.  To  obtain  a  fine 
grain  the  clay  should  be  wedged  at  intervals  during  several 
months.  It  is  stated  that  in  China  the  stuff  is  prepared  many 
years  in  advance.  The  French  missionaries  were  informed 
that  it  was  customary  to  prepare  the  stuff  for  a  hundred  years 
(^pour  cent  annees},  whence  arose  a  fanciful  derivation  of  the 
word  porcelain.  However  this  may  be,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  newly-made  stuff  produces  bad  ware,  and  that  ageing 
greatly  improves  it.  During  the  last-named  process  a  kind 
of  fermentation  sets  in,  carbonic  acid  and  sulphide  of  hydro- 
gen are  liberated,  and  the  mass  improves  in  texture  and  color. 
These  gases  are  doubtless  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  car- 
bonaceous and  organic  impurities  of  the  clay  or  of  the  water, 
whence  the  improvement  in  color ;  while  the  disengagement 
of  the  gas  accounts  for  the  improvement  in  texture.  The 
next  process  is  slapping,  in  which  the  workman  takes  up  a 
mass  of  the  paste  and  dashes  it  down  with  violence,  then 
dividing  the  mass  with  a  wire,  he  dashes  the  top  on  the  lower; 
this  is  done  many  times,  care  being  taken  to  preserve  the 
grain — that  is,  to  slap  the  layers  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
not  obliquely,  otherwise  the  paste  would  be  liable  to  fall  apart 
during  the  firing. 

THE  MANUFACTURE. 

There  are  three  processes  by  which  fictile  articles  are 
shaped — namely,  throwing,  pressing,  and  casting.  Of  these 
throwing  is  the  most  common,  and  by  far  the  most  ancient. 
It  is  performed  by  means  of  the  potter's  wheel  or  lathe,  which 
is  a  disc  of  w^ood  fastened  to  the  top  of  a  vertical  spindle, 
and  made  to  rotate  by  being  connected  by  means  of  a  strap 
with  a  multiplying  Avheel  driven  by  an  attendant.  The  paste, 
as  it  is  received  from  the  slapper,  is  of  the  consistence  of 
dough.     The  thrower's  attendant  cuts  it  up   into  portions, 


172  Five  Black  Arts. 

weighs  each,  according  to  the  quantity  required  for  the  in- 
tended article,  and  rolls  each  portion  up  into  a  ball .  The 
thrower,  seated  before  his  lathe,  dashes  one  of  the  balls  down 
upon  the  rotating  board,  and  with  the  fingers,  which  are  fre- 
quently dipped  in  water,  raises  the  lump  into  a  conical  form, 
presses  down  the  mass  to  get  rid  of  air-bubbles,  and  with  one 
hand,  or  finger  and  thumb,  in  the  mass,  gives  shape  to  the 
intended  article  ;  he  is  also  furnished  with  a  piece  of  horn  or 
porcelain  called  a  rib^  the  edge  of  which  accurate!/  repre- 
sents the  curve  of  the  vessel.  With  this  he  smooths  the  inner 
surface,  and  gives  it  shape.  Daring  this  operation  the  assist- 
ant turns  the  wheel  with  varying  rates  of  speed,  so  that  the 
centrifugal  force  may  act  diSferently  in  different  conditions 
of  the  growing  vessel.  The  thrower  is  furnished  with  a  rude 
kind  of  fixed  gauge,  consisting  of  an  upright  stick,  from  which 
projects  a  horizontal  rod  at  such  a  height  above  the  whirling 
table  as  to  enable  the  thrower  to  make  all  the  articles  of  one 
kind  very  nearly  of  the  same  size.  When  one  article  is  fin- 
ished, it  is  removed  by  passing  a  Avire  beneath  it,  and  is  set 
aside  in  an  airy  or  a  warm  room  until  sufiiciently  consolidated 
for  the  next  operation,  which  is  turning.  As  it  would  not  be 
possible  for  the  thrower  to  produce  articles  sufficiently  thin, 
they  are  reduced  in  size  by  being  put  on  the  chuck  of  a  lathe, 
and  turned  to  shape  by  means  of  cutting  tools,  the  material 
flying  off  in  long,  broad  shavings  just  as  if  it  were  wood. 
When  it  has  thus  been  properly  thinned  and  brought  to  shape, 
the  vessel  is  smoothed  and  solidified  by  the  pressure  of  a  broad 
tool  upon  its  surface.  Handles,  spouts,  etc.,  are  formed  sep- 
arately, and  are  attached  to  the  articles  by  means  of  slips. 
Flowers,  leaves,  etc.,  are  formed  partly  in  moulds  and  partly 
by  hand,  and  are  stuck  on  separately.  The  article  is  lastly 
trimmed  with  a  knife,  and  cleaned  with  a  damp  sponge,  and 
is  ready  for  the  kiln. 

By  the  process  of  pressing,  such  articles  as  plates,  dishes, 
saucers,  etc.,  are  formed.  The  exact  pattern,  say  of  a  plate, 
having  been  determined  by  means  of  a  model,  a  number  of 
plaster  casts  are  taken,  one  of  which  the  plate-maker  places 
on  a  whirling  table,  bats  out  a  sufficient  quantity  of  paste  by 
means  of  a  plaster  mallet,  and  when  sufficiently  extended, 
places  it  on  the  mould,  much  in  the  same  way  as  a  housewife 
would  cover  a  pie  with  paste.     The  table  is  then  set  whirling, 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — Manufacture.       173 

and  a  profile  or  shape  in  earthenware  being  brought  down  upon 
the  paste,  gives  the  required  form  to  the  bottom  of  the  in- 
tended plate.  When  the  plate-maker  is  satisfied  with  his 
work,  the  mould,  with  the  plate  in  its  green  state,  as  it  is 
called,  upon  it,  is  conveyed  by  a  boy  to  a  warm  room,  and  he 
brings  back  an  empty  mould,  which  has  been  drying,  for  an- 
other plate.  In  about  two  hours  the  plate  is  sufficiently  dry 
to  be  removed  from  the  mould,  but  the  mould  itself  is  left  to 
dry  before  it  is  used  again.  One  man  and  two  boys  can  pro- 
duce from  sixty  to  seventy  dozen  of  common  plates  in  a  day 
of  ten  hours,  the  same  mould  being  used  some  five  or  six 
times  during  the  day. 

The  above  operation  is  called  flat-ware  presiing.  Deep 
vessels  are  formed  by  what  is  called  hollow-ware  jjressing  or 
squeezing,  for  which  purpose  the  mould  consists  of  several 
parts,  which  fit  accurately  together  by  means  of  projecting 
pins  and  cavities.  The  clay  having  been  batted  out,  the  sev- 
eral parts  of  the  mould  carefully  lined  with  it,  and  the  points 
of  junction  well  worked  and  wetted  with  slip,  are  brought 
together  and  secured  by  a  cord,  when  the  joints  are  furthar 
well  worked  and  pressed,  thin  rolls  of  clay  being  some- 
times inserted,  and  the  whole  worked  and  smoothed  with 
moist  leather  and  a  cow's  lip.  The  interior  is  then  Vashed 
with  a  sf)onge,  set  aside  for  a  time,  and  when  somewhat  so- 
lidified, is  worked  or  polished  with  a  flexible  plate  of  horn  ; 
it  is  next  put  into  a  warm  room,  and  when  the  plaster  has  ab- 
sorbed sufficient  moisture,  the  article  is  removed  from  the 
mould  and  fettled  or  trimmed  with  proper  tools  to  get  rid  of 
seam  marks.  The  outside  is  also  cleaned  with  a  moist  sponge, 
and  the  handles,  etc.,  having  been  added,  and  the  horn  again 
used,  it  is  set  aside  for  baking.  For  elaborate  works,  mod- 
els are  formed  by  experienced  artists  in  clay,  and  the  moulds 
for  the  separate  parts  may  be  numerous.  Works  of  a  com- 
paratively simple  character  are  formed  by  the  united  agency 
of  throwing  and  moulding. 

By  the  third  process,  called  casting,  such  delicate  articles 
as  egg-shell  china  are  formed.  The  paste  having  been  re- 
duced to  a  creamy  state,  is  poured  into  a  plaster-mould, 
which,  absorbing  water  from  that  portion  of  the  paste  which 
comes  in  contact  with  it,  fixes  it,  so  as  to  allow  the  remaining 
fluid  portion  to  be  poured  off".     A  very  thin  coating  of  paste 


174  Five  Black  Arts. 

is  thus  left  attached  to  the  mould ;  when  this  is  suflScientlj  dry, 
the  mould  is  again  filled  for  a  short  time  with  the  creamy 
mixture,  when  a  second  thin  deposit  is  formed  upon  the  first. 
The  mould  having  been  dried  in  a  warm  room,  the  cast  is 
taken  out,  examined,  and  touched  upon  by  the  modeler. 
Busts  and  statuettes  are  also  formed  in  this  way  ;  but  as  they 
shrink  as  much  as  one-fourth  during  the  firing,  considerable 
dexterity  is  required  to  preserve  their  shape.  The  lace 
W'hich  is  sometimes  seen  on  these  figures  is  real  lace,  dipped 
into  slip,  when  the  heat  of  the  kiln  destro}?s  the  thread,  and 
solidifies  the  paste,  which  takes  its  place. 

Encaustic  tiles  are  made  by  what  may  be  called  a  fourth 
process,  namely,  veneering.  They  consist  of  a  body  of  red 
clay,  faced  with  a  finer  clay  for  the  pattern,  and  strengthened 
at  the  bottom  with  another  clay,  the  junction  of  these  layers 
apparently  preventing  warping.  After  the  usual  preparatory 
processes,  the  red  clay  is  slapped  into  the  form  of  a  quad- 
rangular block,  from  which  the  tile-maker  cuts  off  a  slab  with 
a  wire,  and  upon  this  the  facing  of  finer  clay,  colored  to  the 
required  tint,  is  batted  out  and  slapped  down.  The  bottom 
facing  is  added  in  a  similar  manner.  The  tile  is  then  put 
into  a  box- press,  when  a  plaster  of  Paris  slab,  with  the  pat- 
tern in*  relief,  is  brought  down  on  the  face  of  the  tile,  and 
impresses  in  the  soft  tinted  clay  the  design,  the  hollow  be- 
ing afterward  filled  up  with  clay  of  another  color.  At  the 
same  time,  the  maker's  name  is  stamped  at  the  back,  together 
■with  a  few  holes  to  make  the  mortar  adhere.  The  colored 
clay,  in  a  creamy  state,  is  next  poured  over  the  face  of  the 
tile,  so  as  completely  to  conceal  it,  and  when,  in  the  course 
of  twenty-four  hours,  this  colored  slip  has  become  hard, 
the  superfluous  clay  is  scraped  away,  the  colored  clay  be- 
ing left  only  in  the  hollows  formed  by  the  pattern-mould. 
The  tile  having  been  finished  off  with  a  knife,  and  defects 
corrected,  is  kept  during  a  week  in  a  warm  room,  called  the 
green-house.,  and  the  drying  is  finished  in  a  warmer  room, 
called  the  hot-house^  preparatory  to  firing. 

The  various  articles  of  pottery,  stone-ware,  or  porcelain 
having,  by  one  or  other  of  jthe  processes  named,  been  perfect- 
ed as  to  form,  and  handles  and  other  appendages,  and  solid 
ornaments  added,  are  now  in  what  is  called  the  green  state. 
The  next  process  is  to  fix  them,  and  deprive  them  of  their 


Pottery  and  Porcelaix — MANUi^ACTURE.       175 

plastic  nature  by  the  action  of  heat.  The  patterns  kiln  con- 
sists of  a  massive  domed  cylinder  of  brick-work,  bound  with 
iron,  and  protected  from  the  weather  by  an  outer  conical  hood 
or  casing.  The  dome  contains  openings  for  the  exit  of  the 
smoke,  which  escapes  into  the  air  through  a  chimney  in  the 
hood.  Heat  is  supplied  by  means  of  six  or  eight  fireplaces 
fixed  round  the  cylinder,  with  proper  circulating  flues  and 
dampers  for  regulating  the  draught.  During  the  firing,  the 
ware  (unless  of  the  commonest  kind)  is  not  exposed  to  the 
direct  action  of  the  fire,  but  is  carefully  packed  in  strong  ves- 
sels, shaped  very  much  like  band-boxes ;  they  are  made  of 
Staffordshire  marl,  and  are  called  seggars.  The  pieces  must 
be  packed  in  the  seggars  in  such  a  way  as  to  economize  space, 
and  yet  give  them  the  full  benefit  of  the  heat ;  at  the  same 
time,  they  must  be  arranged  according  to  their  size  and  solid- 
ity, so  that  small  and  delicate  articles  may  not  vitrify  under 
too  strong  a  heat,  and  large  ones  have  heat  enough.  Some 
articles  admit  of  being  placed  in  contact,  so  as  to  support 
each  other  and  prevent  distortion.  When  the  pieces  are  large 
or  complicated  in  shape,  they  may  require  special  supports  to 
prevent  warping ;  these  supports  are  of  fire-clay,  and  nicely 
fit  the  parts  supported.  Articles  in  porcelain  are  sometimes 
separated  during  the  firing  by  means  of  sand  or  powdered 
flint;  but  the  contrivances  of  this  kind  are  numerous.  When 
the  seggars  are  filled,  they  are  conveyed  to  the  furnace,  and 
piled  up  so  that  the  flat  bottom  of  one  seggar  may  form  a 
cover  to  the  open  mouth  of  the  seggar  immediately  beneath 
it,  the  surfaces  being  separated  by  a  ring  of  soft  clay,  which 
forms  a  tight  joint.  As  many  as  30,000  pieces  of  ware  may 
be  included  in  one  baking.  When  the  seggars  are  properly 
arranged  in  piles,  or  bungs ^  as  they  are  called,  and  steadied 
by  means  of  short  struts,  the  door  of  the  kiln  is  closed  with 
brick-work,  the  fires  are  lighted  usually  in  the  evening,  and 
are  urged  durinj;  the  whole  of  the  night,  so  that  flame  may 
be  seen  issuing  from  the  chimney.  Early  in  the  morning  the 
man  draws  his  first  watch.  Watches  or  trial-pieces  are  small 
rings  of  fire-clay,  which  vary  in  color  with  the  temperature  ; 
a  number  of  these  are  placed  within  the  kiln  in  such  positions 
that  the  man  can  withdraw  them  at  pleasure  by  inserting  a 
long  iron  rod  through  holes  in  the  side  of  the  kiln.  The 
heat  is  regulated  according  to  the  aspect  of  these  watches,  and 


176  Five  Black  Arts. 

when,  after  thirty  or  forty  hours,  the  firinc^  appears  to  have 
been  satisfactory,  no  more  fuel  is  added,  the  fires  are  left  to 
go  out,  and  the  kiln  gradually  cools  during  the  next  twenty  or 
thirty  hours.  As  much  as  fourteen  tons  of  coal  may  be  con- 
sumed in  one  firing.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  very 
large  proportion  of  this  fuel  is  wastefully  expended  :  our  pres- 
ent abundant  native  store  of  coal  leads  to  much  extra va*2;ance 
in  our  various  factories  ;  and  it  has  been  suggested  by  M.  Ar- 
naux,  a  competent  authority,  to  fire  the  ware  by  means  of 
gas,  which,  he  thinks,  can  be  done  with  an  ease  and  precision 
unattainable  by  the  present  system. 

When  the  ware  is  Temoved  from  the  kiln,  its  characters  are 
found  to  have  undergone  a  remarkable  change.  Instead  of  a 
soft,  dull,  friable  or  plastic  material,  we  have  a  hard,  brittle, 
resonant,  light-colored,  porous  body.  In  this  state  it  is  call- 
ed biscuit^  from  its  resemblance  to  well-baked  ship  bread. 
Wine-coolers  and  similar  porous  articles,  when  brought  to 
this  state,  are  finished  ;  but  most  articles,  especially  of  earth- 
enware, must  be  covered  with  some  kind  of  vitreous  glaze, 
to  remove  their  porosity  and  liability  to  tarnish,  and  to  ren- 
der them  fit  for  use.  If  colored  ornaments  have  to  be  added, 
these  are  first  put  upon  the  biscuit,  and  the  glaze,  in  the  form 
of  a  white  powder,  is  then  made  to  cover  the  whole  article, 
which,  being  passed  a  second  time  through  the  fire,  the  pow- 
der melts  into  a  glass,  which  forms  the  ordinary  surface  of  com- 
mon wares,  'ihe  firing  is  a  costly  process,  from  the  great 
expenditure  of  time  and  fuel,  and  this  second  firing  still  fur- 
ther increases  the  cost  of  the  ware.  It  thus  became  a  great 
improvement  when  Wedgwood  was  able  so  to  compound  the 
ingredients  of  his  ware  that  partial  vitrification  took  place  at 
the  fii st  firing,  thereby  depriving  the  ware  of  its  porous  char- 
acter, and  rendering  a  second  firing  unnecessary.  So  also, 
in  the  commonest  kind  of  stone-ware,  such  as  is  made  at  the 
Lambeth  potteries,  the  glazing  is,  by  an  ingenious  device, 
efiected  simultaneously  with  the  baking.  When  the  ware  has 
attained  a  very  high  temperature  in  the  kiln,  a  quantity  of 
moist  salt  (chloride  of  sodium)  is  thrown  in  ;  the  salt  is  vol- 
atilized and  decomposed  in  the  presence  of  moisture,  and  by 
contact  with  the  heated  surfaces  of  the  clay,  hydrochloric  acid 
is  disengaged,  and  the  ware  becomes  covered  with  silicate 
of  soda,  which,  combining  with  the  silicate  of  alumina  of  the 


^OTTERY   AND   PORCELAIN — ^MANUFACTURE.  177 

ware  forms  a  fusible  double  alkaline  silicate  or  glaze  on  the 
surface. 

The  object  of  the  glaze  being  to  render  the  article  imper- 
meable by  water,  attempts  have  been  made  to  accomplish 
that  end  in  various  ways.  Certain  rude  nations  render  their 
wares  impermeable  by  rubbing  them  while  hot  with  tallow, 
which,  becoming  partially  decomposed,  fills  up  the  pores,  and 
imparts  a  black  color.  Even  the  vases  of  the  artistic  Etrus- 
cans and  Greeks  have  not  a  vitreous  but  a  carbonaceous  glaze, 
which  wears  off  in  the  handling.  The  wine  and  oil  jars  of 
Spain  and  Italy  are  made  water-tight  by  the  ancient  method 
of  rubbing  them  over  with  wax.  The  most  common  descrip- 
tion of  glaze  is,  as  its  name  glaze  or  glass  implies,  vitreous. 
It  is  of  two  kinds,  transparent  dii\di  opaque.  When  the  ware 
is  of  good  color,  and  the  ornaments  are  impressed  upon  it, 
the  glaze  may  be  transparent ;  but  where  the  clay,  otherwise 
good  in  quality,  is  bad  in  color,  an  opaque  glaze,  or  enamel^ 
as  it  is  then  called,  is  used.  In  some  cases,  articles  made  of 
a  good  clay,  of  a  bad  color,  may,  before  firing,  be  dipped  into 
a  slip  of  white  clay,  and  being  thus  veneered,  admit  of  taking 
a  transparent  glaze.  Glazes  colored  by  means  of  a  metallic 
oxide  are  also  sometimes  used.  The  glaze  should  not  have 
too  strong  an  affinity  for  the  paste,  or  during  the  second  fir- 
ing it  may  be  absorbed  into  the  ware  instead  of  remaining 
at  the  surface,  to  which  it  should  adhere  firmly,  and  expand 
and  contract  equally  with  the  ware,  so  as  not  to  be  liable  to 
craze  or  crack.  Numerous  substances  are  employed  in  the 
composition  of  glaze.  For  very  hard  ware,  in  which  the 
point  of  fusion  is  high,  the  felspars  and  certain  volcanic  scoriae 
are  used  ;  in  other  cases,  common  salt,  potash,  boracic  acid, 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  sulphate  of  baryta,  are  the  ingredients. 
Another  class  of  glazes  contains  earthy  and  metallic  substan- 
ces, mixed  or  fritted  into  a  glass ;  such  are  silica  and  lead, 
or  enamels  of  silica,  tin,  and  lead.  Some  glazes  contain  me- 
tallic oxides,  such  as  those  of  manganese,  lead,  and  copper. 
Metallic  and  earthy  substances,  if  not  previously  fritted,  form 
a  glaze  with  the  silica  of  the  paste  in  the  gloss  oven.  Such 
glazes,  however,  are  commonly  soft,  and  liable  to  be  acted  on 
by  acid  and  fatty  substances ;  so  that  lead  glazes  should  be 
avoided  for  articles  intended  to  receive  food.  In  such  cases, 
borax  may  be  advantageously  substituted  for  lead.     A  pure 


178  Five  Black  Arts. 

white  paste  is  improved  by  a  transparent  glaze,  but  if  of  bad 
color,  it  may  be  dipped  into  opaque  glazes  even  before  the 
first  firing.  Glazes  are  made  opaque  by  means  of  oxide  of 
tin  ;  color  is  given  by  the  oxides  of  manganese,  copper,  and 
iron ;  while,  by  introducing  these,  together  with  the  oxides  of 
cobalt  and  of  chromium,  into  opaque  and  transparent  glazes,  an 
agreeable  variety  is  produced.  Pegmatite  forms  a  good  glaze 
for  hard  porcelain ;  but  for  soft  porcelain  a  gliss  is  fritted  and 
mixed  with  oxide  of  lead,  or  with  earthy  substances. 

In  applying  the  glaze  to  the  biscuit,  it  is  reduced  to  a  fine 
powder,  and  mixed  with  water.  When  the  biscuit  is  plunged 
into  this  mixture,  the  porous  material  immediately  absorbs  a 
quantity  of  the  water,  and  leaves  the  powder  equally  distrib- 
uted over  its  surface.  When  articles  are  glazed  and  fired 
at  one  operation,  the  ware  in  its  green  state  is  not  absorbent, 
so  that  the  glazing  has  to  be  put  on  with  a  brush.  For  ar- 
ticles which  are  glazed  on  the  inside  only,  such  as  pipkins, 
the  glaze  is  made  creamy  with  water,  and  poured  into  the 
vessel  and  then  out  again,  a  sufficient  quantity  adhering  to  the 
surface  by  this  means.  Custom  requires  that  jars  shall  have 
a  portion  of  their  surface  of  a  deeper  brown  than  the  natural 
color  of  the  material ;  they  are  therefore  dipped  to  a  certain 
height  in  a  mixture  of  red  ocher  and  clay  slip.  The  glaz- 
ing is  completed  during  the  firing  by  means  of  common  salt, 
as  already  noticed. 

The  pieces  having  been  covered  wi'h  white  powder,  are 
arranged  in  seggars  to  protect  them  from  the  direct  action  of 
the  fire  in  the  gloss  oven.  They  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  means  of  supports,  which  present  the  smallest  pos- 
sible surface  of  contact.  These  supports,  known  as  cock»purs, 
triangles^  stilts^  etc.,  have  points  projecting  from  them  above 
and  below,  which  serve  to  separate,  while  they  support,  the 
articles  as  they  are  piled  up  in  the  seggars.  The  seggars 
are  piled  up  in  the  glaze-kiln  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
biscuit-kiln,  and  the  temperature  is  raised  to  a  point  sufficient 
to  fuse  the  glaze  into  a  transparent  glass,  andto  unite  it  per- 
fectly with  the  surfaces  of  the  ware.  To  enable  the  workmen 
to  determine  when  the  proper  temperature  has  been  reached, 
■watches,  or  rings  of  clay,  covered  with  glaze,  are  placed  in 
the  oven,  aad  drawn  out  from  time  to  time. 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — Ornamentation.     179 

the  ornamentation. 

The  love  of  ornament,  which  forms  part  of  that  hi^^her 
sense  of  beauty  common  to  our  nature  requires  the  addition 
of  some  kind  of  adornment  to  articles  in  common  use.  The 
rude  pottery  of  savage  nations  is  relieved  in  this  way,  and 
often  with  considerable  taste.  It  may  admit  of  question 
whether  our  own  taste  is  equally  correct  in  the  elaborate  dec- 
orations which  we  bestow  upon  articles  intended  for  e very-day 
use.  Plates  of  Sevres  porcelain,  richly  decorated  with  land- 
scapes, or  portraits  of  distinguished  individuals,  may  have  a 
high  artistic  value,  but  are  certainly  not  adapted  to  be  placed 
before  the  company  at  a  dinner-table.  A  dessert  or  dinner- 
plate  is  not  in  itself  remarkable  for  beauty  of  form  ;  but  its 
effect  is  absolutely  hideous  when  it  is  made  to  take  a  promi- 
nent part  in  decoration.  In  the  palace  at  Fontainebleau  we 
were  introduced  to  a  room,  the  walls  of  which  were  decora- 
ted with  plates  of  Sevres  china,  arranged  in  horizontal  lines. 
In  such  an  example,  the  costliness  of  the  material  and  the 
skill  of  the  artists  were  rendered  simply  rediculous.  So  also 
the  rich  blue  and  gold  of  a  tea-service  have  too  heavy  an 
eifect,  when  the  feeling  of  grace  and  lightness  ought  to  be 
inspired.  The  leading  idea  in  ceramic  ware  should  be  that  of 
purity.  The  white  color  would  sufficiently  suggest  this  if  it 
were  not  concealed  by  ornament,  just  as  that  pure  material 
glass,  when  not  spoilt  by  the  glass-cutter,  reveals  the  unsulli- 
ed transparency  of  the  water  or  of  the  wine  contained  in  it. 
The  artist  may  exercise  his  taste  in  producing  beauty  of  form, 
but  the  ornamentation  of  that  form  should  be  of  the  simplest 
character,  only  just  calculated  to  relieve  the  beauty  of  the 
material.  Our  limited  space  will  not  allow  us  to  enlarge  on 
this  subject,  so  that  we  at  once  proceed  to  a  brief  notice  of 
the  mechanical  and  chemical  means  by  which  ornaments  are 
applied  to  pottery  and  porcelain. 

When  common  ware  is  to  be  ornamented  with  a  pattern, 
it  is  put  on  before  the  glazing.  The  blue  pattern  of  an  ordi- 
nary plate  is  printed  on  the  biscuit  with  an  ink  composed  of 
boiled  linseed-oil,  resin,  tar,  and  oil  of  amber,  colored  bj 
maans  of  a  mixture  of  oxide  of  cobalt,  ground  flint,  and  sul- 
phate of  baryta  (fritted  and  ground),  and  blended  with  a 
flux  of  ground  flint  and  thick  glass  powder,  which  serves  to 


180  Five  Black  Arts. 

fix  the  color.  The  ink  is  made  fluid  by  spreading  it  on  a  hot 
iron  plate.  It  is  taken  up  by  means  of  a  leathern  dubber, 
and  transferred  to  engraved  copperplates,  also  heated,  and 
the  superfluous  color  is  scraped  off  with  a  pallet-knife,  and 
the  surface  of  the  plate  is  cleaned  with  a  dossil.  A  sheet  of 
yellow  unsized  paper  is  next  dipped  into  soapy  water,  and 
placed  on  the  copperplate,  which  is  thus  passed  through  a 
cylinder  press.  The  pattern  is  thus  transferred  to  the  paper, 
which  is  taken  by  a  girl  called  the  cutter,  who  cuts  away  the 
unprinted  portions,  and  leaves  the  pattern  in  separate  parts. 
These  are  taken  by  a  woman  called  the  transferrer,  who 
places  each  portion  with  its  printed  side  next  the  biscuit,  and 
rubs  it  with  a  flannel  rubber,  until  the  ink  is  properly  absorbed. 
The  pattern-papers  are  subsequently  removed  by  placing  the 
biscuit  in  water,  and  gently  washing  it  with  a  brush.  The 
biscuit  is  next  dried  in  an  oven,  and  is  then  ready  for  glazing; 
the  heat  of  the  gloss  oven  vitrifies  the  glaze,  and  allows  the 
pattern  to  be  seen  through  it.  Instead  of  paper,  a  flexible 
sheet  of  glue,  called  a  paper  or  hat,  is  in  some  cases  used  for 
transferring  the  design.  The  impression  is  taken  in  oil  from 
the  engraved  plate,  and  after  it  has  been  transferred  to  the 
biscuit,  the  required  color  is  dusted  over  it  in  a  dry  state. 
The  sheet  of  glue  can  be  cleaned  with  a  sponge,  and  can  be 
used  over  and  over  again. 

When  the  pattern  is  required  to  produce  high  artistic  ef- 
fects of  form  and  color,  the  work  is  performed  by  hand  with 
a  camel-hair  pencil.  The  colors  consist  of  metallic  oxides 
ground  up  with  such  vitrifiable  substances  as  glass,  niter,  and 
borax,  oil  of  turpentine  or  of  lavender  being  the  usual  vehi- 
cle. The  greatest  difficulty  which  the  artist  has  to  contend 
with  arises  from  the  fact,  that  the  colors  are  for  the  most  part 
dingy  and  unpleasing,  and  give  no  idea  to  an  inexperienced 
eye  of  the  intended  effect.*  It  is  not  until  the  heat  of  the 
furnace  has  driven  off  the  oil,  and  chemically  combined  the 

*  Attempts  have  been  made  to  construct  a  pallet  of  enamel  colors  which 
do  not  change  color  in  the  firing,  but  only  change  from  a  dullness  to  a 
creaminess  of  texture.  A  case  of  this  kind  is  mentioned  by  Brongniart, 
but  the  success  attained  by  the  inventor,  M.  Dihl,  was  only  partial ;  since 
the  rose  tints,  purple,  and  violet,  produced  by  the  precipitate  of  cassius, 
which  cannot  be  prevented  from  changing  under  the  action  of  heat,  were 
omitted.  Besides  this,  the  action  of  the  surface,  and  the  different  kind  of 
glaze  upon  the  colors  were  not  taken  into  account. 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — Ornamentation.      181 

ingredients  of  the  colors,  that  the  effect  can  be  judged  of. 
The  artist  has  thus  to  work,  as  it  were,  in  the  dark :  he  is 
not  cheered  with  the  idea  of  progress,  as  in  the  ordinary  oil- 
painting,  where  the  work  seems  to  grow  into  life,  and  to  de- 
velop new  details  of  beauty  at  every  touch.  Even  after  the 
first  firing,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  success  has  been  at- 
tained. The  work  may  have  to  be  retouched,  and  again 
passed  through  the  fire,  or  it  may  be  injured  by  one  or  other 
of  the  numerous  accidents  to  which  a  work  is  liable  which 
has  to  pass  through  the  fire. 

The  colors  used  are  formed  by  the  combination  of  certain 
metallic  oxides  and  salts  with  certain  fluxes,  by  means  of 
heat,  which  enables  them  to  fuse  into  colored  glasses.  The 
oxides  are  usually  those  of  chromium,  of  iron,  of  uranium,  of 
manganese,  of  zinc,  of  cobalt,  of  antimony,  of  copper,  of  tin, 
and  of  iridium.  The  salts  and  other  bodies  used  for  impart- 
ing color  are  the  chromates  of  iron,  of  baryta,  and  of  lead, 
the  chloride  of  silver,  the  purple  precipitate  of  cassius,  burnt 
umber  and  burnt  sienna,  red  and  yellow  ochers,  etc.  Some 
of  these  develop  their  colors  under  the  influence  of  the  high- 
est temperature  of  the  porcelain  furnace,  and  are  hence  called 
by  the  French  chemists  couleurs  de  grand  feu  ;  others,  and 
by  far  the  larger  number,  are  termed  muffle-colors,  inasmuch 
as  they  become  developed  under  the  more  moderate  heat  of 
the  muffle,  which  is  a  kind  of  seggar,  in  which  the  painted 
ware  is  inclosed,  to  protect  it  from  the  fuel.  The  first  class 
of  colors  is  limited  to  the  blue  produced  by  oxide  of  cobalt, 
the  green  of  oxide  of  chromium,  the  brown  produced  by  iron, 
manganese,  and  chromate  of  iron,  the  yellows  from  oxide  of 
titanium,  and  the  uranium  blacks.  Those  colors  form  the 
grounds  of  hard  porcelain,  and  as  the  heat  employed  in  firing 
it  is  capable  of  fusing  felspar,  that  substance  is  used  as  the 
flux.  For  an  indigo  blue,  four  parts  oxide  of  cobalt  and  seven 
parts  felspar,  or  for  a  pale  blue,  one  part  oxide  of  cobalt  and 
thirty  parts  felspar,  are  well  pounded,  mixed  by  repeated 
siftings,  and  vitrified  in  a  crucible  in  the  porcelain  furnace. 
The  resulting  glass  is  reduced  to  powder,  ground  up  with  a 
volatile  oil,  and  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  biscuit,  which, 
being  again  raised  to  the  high  temperature  of  the  porcelain 
furnace,  the  color  fuses,  and  becomes  incorporated  with  the 
substance  of  the  ware.     The  high  temperature,  required  for 


182  FivB  Black  Arts. 

cobalt  has,  however,  this  inconvenience,  that  a  portion  of  it 
becomes  volatile,  so  as  to  aflfect  objects  placed  near  it.  In 
this  way  a  white  vase  in  the  same  furnace  may  derive  a  blue 
tint  from  the  vapor  of  the  cobalt.  This  color  is  also  uncer- 
tain in  its  results:  it  sometimes  leaves  white  uncolored 
patches,  or  forms  a  dull  granular  surface.  Oxide  of  chromium 
may  be  employed  without  a  flux  to  give  a  green  color  to  hard 
porcelain  ;  but  as  it  does  not,  under  such  circumstances,  pen- 
etrate the  ware,  it  is  liable  to  scale  off.  A  bluish-green  is 
produced  from  three  parts  oxide  of  cobalt,  one  part  oxide  of 
chromium,  and  one-tenth  of  felspar,  without  fritting.  Mix- 
tures of  the  oxides  of  iron,  manganese,  and  cobalt,  produce 
a  fine  black,  and  by  omitting  the  cobalt,  various  shades  of 
brown. 

The  muffle  colors  are  too  numerous  to  be  stated  here ; 
they  are  fired  at  a  temperature  equal  to  about  the  fusing 
point  of  silver.  Many  of  them  would  become  more  brilliant 
and  solid  under  a  greater  heat,  but  this  would  be  injurious  to 
those  colors  which  are  obtained  from  the  purple  precipitate  of 
cassius,*  on  which  the  artist  relies  for  some  of  his  finest  ef- 
fects, such  as  fine  purple,  violet,  and  carmine  tints. 

In  preparing  metallic  oxides  and  their  fluxes  sound  chemi- 
cal knowledge  is  required,  otherwise  the  results  cannot  be  de- 
pended on.  The  chemist  relies  on  the  stability  of  nature, 
as  revealed  to  him  by  his  science :  he  reduces  his  materials 
to  a  state  of  chemical  purity,  and  compounds  them  according 
to  the  law  of  definite  proportions.  In  order,  for  example, 
that  the  yellow  color  imparted  by  chromate  of  lead  shall  be 
identical  at  all  times,  the  compound  must  obviously  consist  of 
nothing  but  equal  equivalents  of  oxide  of  lead  and  chromic 
acid.  In  such  case,  if  the  pigment  be  applied  at  different 
times  under  the  same  circumstances,  it  will  produce  precisely 
similar  results;  but  if  either  of  the  proximate  elements  of  the 
salt  be  impure,  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  compound. 
Difierent  specimens  will  produce  different  results,  although 
the  same  mode  of  applying  them  be  always  observed.  In 
some  cases,  however,  not  even  the  chemical  purity  of  the  in- 
gredients will  insure  harmonious  results.  The  physical  con- 
dition of  one  of  the  ingredients  may  be  of  importance,  as  in 

*  This  pigment  is  formed  by  adding  a  solution  of  gold  in  aqua  regia  to  one 
of  chloride  of  tin. 


Pottery  and  Porcelain — Ornamentation.      183 

the  case  of  oxide  of  zinc,  an  ingredient  in  some  of  the  en- 
amel greens,  yellows,  yellow-browns,  and  blues.  If  the  ox- 
ide be  lumpy,  granular,  dense,  and  friable,  it  will  produce  a 
dull  pigment,  although  chemically  pure,  while  a  light  floccu- 
lent  impalpable  oxide,  chemically  identical  with  the  former, 
will  give  satisfactory  results.  It  is  further  necessary  that  so- 
lutions of  a  metal  be  made  at  the  same  temperature,  that  the 
acids  which  dissolve  it  be  of  the  same  strength,  that  the  pre- 
cipitate be  neither  more  nor  less  rapid  on  one  occasion  than 
on  another.  Such  conditions  as  these  require  to  be  carefully 
studied  and  noted,  as,  indeed,  has  been  done  in  the  labora- 
tory at  Sevres,  where  minute  records  are  kept  of  the  pro- 
cesses required  for  compounding  the  colors. 

But  even  when  such  conditions  as  the  above  are  known  and 
observed,  there  are  others  so  slight  as  scarcely  to  be  appre- 
ciable, but  which,  nevertheless,  have  an  influence  on  the  color. 
With  certain  delicate  pigments,  the  poiphyrization  or  grinding 
with  water  or  oil  a  little  more  or  less,  the  difference  of  touch 
of  different  artists  in  laying  on  the  same  pigment,  will  pro- 
duce differences  in  tone,  although  all  the  other  conditions  be 
strictly  observed. 

Dumas  defines  the  process  of  painting  on  hard  porcelain 
to  be  the  art  of  soldering  by  heat  to  a  layer  of  the  glaze  a 
layer  of  fusible  color,  the  dilatation  of  which  shall  be  the 
same  as  that  of  the  glaze  and  the  body  of  the  ware.  The 
function  of  the  flux  is  to  envelop  the  color  and  attach  it  to 
the  glaze.  In  most  cases  it  has  no  action  on  the  color,  but 
is  simply  mechanically  mixed  with  it:  the  flax,  however,  must 
mix  with  the  glaze.  That  muflle  colors  do  not  penetrate  the 
porcelain,  may  be  proved  by  boiling  in  nitric  acid  a  piece  of 
painted  ware  after  it  has  been  fired,  when  the  colors  will  dis- 
appear. As  the  flux  is  only  a  mechanical  vehicle  for  the 
color,  it  must  vary  with  the  color;  but  the  necessity  for  mix- 
ing or  blending  colors  greatly  limits  the  range  of  fluxes.  A 
common  flux  is  the  silicate  of  lead,  or  a  mixture  of  this  with 
borax.  Now  the  borax  cannot  be  replaced  by  the  fixed  al- 
kalies, on  account  of  the  readiness  with  which  soda  or  potash 
becomes  displaced  in  order  to  form  other  compounds.  They 
have  also  a  tendency  to  make  the  colors  scale  off.  The  mode 
of  using  the  fluxes  varies  with  the  color:  in  some  cases  it 
may  be  ground  up  in  proper  proportions  with  the  color ;   in 


184  Five  Black  Akts. 

others  it  must  be  previously  fritted  with  the  color.  The  first 
mode  is  adopted  when  the  coloring  oxide  is  readilj  altered  by 
heat;  but  when  the  oxide  requires  a  high  temperature  to 
bring  out  its  characteristic  color,  the  second  method  is  adopted. 

Not  the  least  among  the  difficulties  of  enamel-painting  is 
the  high  temperature  required  for  the  vitrification  of  the 
colors.  The  lowest  heat  of  the  mufile  is  about  1 100°  Fahren- 
heit ;  while  some  oxides  do  not  develop  their  color  below 
1850^.  In  the  regulation  of  the  furnace,  the  most  successful 
method  is  to  begin  with  a  low  heat,  and  urge  it  rapidly  up  to 
its  maximum,  and  as  rapidly  to  lower  the  heat.  A  moderate 
heat,  long  continued,  may  produce  devitrification — that  is,  the 
elements  of  the  flux  may  separate,  and  combine  again  in  a 
difl*erent  manner,  so  as  to  produce  an  opaque  substance  known 
as  Reaumur^ s  porcelain.  There  is  danger  in  the  opposite 
extreme  ;  for  if  the  temperature  be  carried  too  high,  some  of 
the  more  delicate  tints,  such  as  the  roses  and  the  grays,  be- 
come faint  or  vanish  altogether,  while  the  hardier  greens, 
blues,  and  blacks  remain.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  maxi- 
mum temperature  be  not  quite  reached,  the  colors  do  not  pre- 
sent that  peculiar  creaminess  and  glossiness  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  art.  The  temperature  is  regulated  by  means 
of  watches,  consisting  of  small  slabs  of  porcelain  smeared 
with  some  trial  color,  usually  the  carmine  produced  by  the 
purple  precipitate  of  cassius.  This  forms  a  useful  exponent 
of  all  the  other  pigments:  it  varies  greatly  in  tint  according 
to  the  temperature ;  so  that,  by  arranging  a  scale  of  temper- 
atures corresponding  with  a  scale  of  tints,  a  tolerably  accu- 
rate thermoscope  may  be  formed.  Brongniart  invented  a 
pyrometer  for  estimating  the  temperature  of  the  interior  of 
the  muffle ;  its  action  depends  on  the  expansion  of  a  bar  of 
fine  silver,  nearly  eight  inches  long,  introduced  into  the  muffle, 
and  connected  with  a  graduated  scale  on  the  outside. 

The  kind  of  fuel  used  for  heating  the  muffle  has  an  influence 
on  the  colors ;  for  although  the  muffle  may  consist  of  an  iron 
box  heated  only  on  the  outside,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
prevent  some  of  the  products  of  combustion  from  entering 
it.  The  smoke  of  ordinary  coal  is  especially  injurious  to  the 
colors,  from  the  presence  of  sulphurous  acid,  which  is  also 
given  off  from  coke.  Wood  has  its  pyroligneous  acids,  and 
even  charcoal  gives  off  carbonic  acid.     The  presence  of  an 


T?OTTERT  AND   PORCELAIN — ORNAMENTATION.       185 

acid  is  so  injurious  in  the  muffle,  that  the  reds  produced  from 
green  vitriol,  before  being  used,  must  be  thoroughly  washed, 
to  get  rid  of  the  last  traces  of  acid.  It  is  also  stated  that  a 
muffle  in  which  cuperose  has  been  calcined,  cannot  be  used 
for  the  firing  of  colors. 

There  is  also  a  difficulty  connected  with  the  use  of  oxide 
of  lead,  which  is  required  in  the  preparation  of  certain 
colors,  but  is  injurious  to  the  development  of  some  others. 
Again,  the  fixed  alkalies  used  in  the  composition  of  the  glaze 
may  react  on  the  coloring  oxides,  especially  at  the  maximum 
temperature.  In  this  way,  the  oxide  of  chrome  will  produce 
yellow  instead  of  green.  The  oxide  of  lead,  the  potash,  and 
the  soda,  may  not  only  act  injuriously  by  contact,  but  by  be- 
coming volatilized,  they  may  injure  every  color  in  the  muffle. 
Moreover,  the  oxide  of  tin,  used  in  certain  glazes,  may  im- 
part its  own  opacity  to  the  colors.  It  is  also  a  curious  fact, 
that  different  kinds  of  kaolin  are  not  all  equally  favorable  to 
the  devolopment  of  the  colors  put  upon  the  ware ;  and  we  are 
informed,  that  the  kaolin  of  Ebreuil  will  not  allow  of  the 
development  of  any  color  derived  from  gold. 

The  metals  used  for  imparting  color,  hitherto  referred  to, 
have  been  in  the  form  of  oxides,  etc.,  and  used  with  a  flux. 
The  gold  used  in  gilding  porcelain  is  first  dissolved  in  aqua 
regia;  the  acid  is  driven  off  by  heat,  when  the  gold  remains 
in  a  state  of  minute  division.  It  may  also  be  precipitated 
by  means  of  sulphate  of  iron.  In  this  minutely  divided  state 
it  is  mixed  with  one-twelfth  of  its  weight  of  oxide  of  bis- 
muth, together  with  a  small  quantity  of  borax  and  gum-water, 
and  applied  to  the  ware  by  means  of  a  hair  pencil.  If  the 
article  is  to  have  only  a  circular  line  of  gold,  it  is  placed  upon 
a  small  table  or  whirler,  and  the  artist,  steadying  his  hand  on 
a  rest,  applies  the  pencil  to  the  article,  while  with  the  other 
hand  he  causes  the  table  to  revolve.  The  gold  ornaments 
come  out  of  the  fire  with  a  wretched  dingy  hue ;  but  the 
luster  of  the  gold  is  brought  out  by  burnishing  with  agate 
and  blood-stone,  and  the  gilding  is  cleaned  with  vinegar  cr 
white-lead. 

Other  metals  which,  like  gold,  do  not  become  readily  ox- 
idized, are  applied  to  stone-ware,  and  form  what  are  called 
metallic  lusters.  The  silver-white  hue  known  z^  silver  luster 
is  obtained  from  platinum  by  dissolving  the  metal  in  aqua 


186  Five  Black  Arts. 

regia^  and  pouring  the  saturated  solution  into  boiling  water. 
This  is  poured  into  a  warm  solution  of  sal  ammoniac,  when 
the  metal  forms  a  yellow  precipitate,  which,  after  having 
been  washed  and  dried,  is  applied  to  the  ware  by  means  of  a 
flat  brush,  and  the  article  is  then  passed  through  the  muffle- 
kiln.  A  sufficient  body  of  luster  may  be  obtained  by  repeating 
the  operation ;  and  should  the  articles  come  out  of  the  muffle 
black,  friction  with  cotton  will  give  the  required  luster.  A 
platinum  luster  resembling  that  of  polished  steel  is  obtained 
by  dropping  a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  tar  and  sulphur  in 
hot  linseed-oil,  known  as  spirit  of  tar,  into  the  acid  solution 
of  platinum.  The  mixture  is  spread  over  the  ware,  and  passed 
through  the  muffle  as  before.  Gold  luster  is  obtained  by 
precipitating  a  solution  of  gold  in  aqua  regia  by  means  of 
ammonia :  it  has  fulminating  properties,  and  must  therefore 
be  mixed  with  the  essential  oil  of  turpentine  while  moist,  and 
in  this  state  applied  to  the  ware.  Af.er  the  firing,  the  luster 
will  be  brought  out  by  friction  with  linen.  The  lustre  can- 
tharide  of  the  French,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  iridescence, 
is  obtained  from  chloride  of  silver,  partly  decomposed  by 
means  of  combustible  vapors.  For  this  purpose  a  mixture  of 
a  lead  glass,  oxide  of  bismuth,  and  chloride  of  silver,  is  ap- 
plied to  the  ware.  This  is  then  raised  to  a  red  heat  in  the 
muffle,  when  a  fuliginous  smoke  is  introduced,  which  effects 
the  partial  decomposition  required.  An  iroji  luster  is  ob- 
tained by  mixing  a  solution  of  iron  or  steel  in  hydrochloric 
acid  with  spirit  of  tar,  and  applying  it  to  the  ware.  Silver 
and  platinum  lusters  are  usually  laid  upon  a  white  ground  ; 
gold  and  copper  lusters  have  the  best  effect  on  colored  grounds. 
The  paste  body  for  lustrous  ware  is  usually  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, of  four  parts  clay,  four  of  flint,  four  of  kaolin,  and  six 
of  felspar.  Its  color  is  brown,  but  it  is  coated  with  a  lead 
glaze  composed  of  sixty  parts  litharge,  thirty-six  of  felspar, 
and  fifteen  of  flint. 


GLASS 


ITS  HISTORY  AND  MANUFACTURE. 


GLASS. 

HISTORY    AND    MANUFACTURE. 


The  general  term  glass  is  employed  by  chemists  to  denote 
all  mineral  substances  which,  on  the  application  of  heat,  pass 
through  a  state  of  fusion  into  hard  and  brittle  masses,  and 
which,  though  not  always  transparent,  exhibit  a  lustrous 
fracture  when  broken.  The  glass  of  commerce,  however,  to 
which  our  remarks  are  restricted,  or  the  transparent  and  ar- 
tificial substance  which  is  usually  distinguished  by  the  gen- 
eric name,  is  produced  by  the  igneous  fusion  of  siliceous 
earth  with  certain  alkaline  earths  or  salts,  or  with  metallic 
oxides. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  has  been  much  disputed.  It 
is  derived  by  some  from  the  Latin  glacies,  ice,  its  resem- 
blance to  which  is  thought  to  have  suggested  the  title.  Oth- 
ers have  remarked,  that  the  common  Latin  designation  of 
this  substance  is  vitrum;  and  as  the  Romans  applied  this 
term,  in  common  with  the  word  glastum^  to  the  plant  which 
we  call  woad,  they  have  deduced  it  from  the  latter  of  these, 
either  because  the  ashes  of  this  plant  were  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  glass,  or  because  it  exhibited  something  of  the 
bluish  color  which  is  procured  from  woad.  Glassum,  the 
name  given  to  amber  by  the  ancient  Gauls  and  Britons,  has 
also  been  assigned  as  the  origin  of  the  word.  But  none  of 
these  etymons  appear  very  satisfactory.  The  most  plausible 
theory  is  that  which  derives  the  term  from  the  Saxon  verb 
glis-nian,  or  the  German  gleissen,  splendere,  which  are  prob- 
ably contractions  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  ge-lixan^  to  shine,  to 
be  bright.  This  view  is  in  a  great  degree  confirmed  by  the 
sense  in  which  the  term  glass  and  its  derivatives  are  employ- 


190  Five  Black  Arts. 

ed  by  our  older  writers,  who  frequently  apply  it  to  shining 
or  glittering  substances,  without  reference  to  color  or  trans- 
parency. 

In  the  most  remote  ages  the  art  of  blowing  glass  into  bot- 
tles, making  it  into  vases,  coloring  it  to  imitate  precious 
stones,  melting  it  in  enormous  masses  to  make  pillars,  rolling 
and  polishing  it  into  mirrors,  and  tinting  it  in  parts,  were  all 
perfectly  well  known.  For  its  origin  we  must  look  to  Egypt, 
the  parent  of  so  many  collateral  arts.  The  story  of  the  Is- 
raelites having  set  fire  to  a  forest,  and  the  heat  becoming  so 
intense  that  it  made  the  niter  and  sand  melt  and  flow  along 
the  mountain  side,  and  that  they  afterward  did  artificially 
what  had  been  the  result  of  accident,  may  be  set  down  as 
equally  fabulous  with  the  story  of  the  pirates,  who  are  said 
to  have  landed  on  the  sea-beach,  and  wishing  to  make  their 
cauldron  boil,  piled  up  some  vitreous  stones  and  placed  them 
on  a  quantity  of  sea-weed  and  blocks  of  wood,  causing  so 
strong  a  heat  that  the  stones  were  softened  and  ran  down  on 
the  sand,  which  melting  and  mixing  with  the  alkali  became 
a  diaphanous  and  glassy  mass.  The  fictitious  character  of 
both  these  stories  is  proved  by  the  simple  fact  that  it  requires 
the  most  intense  furnace  heat  to  insure  the  combination  of 
the  sand  with  the  niter. 

Under  these  circumstances  we  are  justified  in  believing 
that  glass-making  had  its  origin  at  the  same  time  with  the 
baking  of  bricks  and  pottery.  The  smelting  of  ores,  too, 
required  a  furnace  sufficiently  intense  to  fuse  the  silicates 
analogous  to  glass,  and  hence  it  may  be  safely  inferred,  that 
in  the  age  when  melting  and  working  metal  was  known  the 
art  of  making  glass  iwas  also  practiced.  In  the  book  of  Job 
the  most  precious  things  are  compared  to  wisdom,  but  still 
more  precious  are  gold  and  glass.  The  Hebrews  must  have 
become  acquainted  with  glass  while  in  Egypt,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  their  proximity  to  the  Phoenicians ;  and  it  is  now 
generally  believed  that  these  two  nations  had  the  merit  of 
originating  and  establishing  its  manufacture.  The  Athenian 
embassadors,  in  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  magnificence 
displayed  at  the  court  of  the  great  King  of  Persia,  said  that 
they  drank  in  cups  of  glass  and  gold.  Some  writers  afiirm 
that  the  Egyptians  in  some  instances  sealed  up  their  dead  in 
a  coating  of  glass,  and  glass-houses  are  said  not  to  have  been 


Glass — History.  191 

uncommon  in  that  wonderful  country.  Some  authors  ascribe, 
■with  very  plausible  reason,  the  discovery  of  ^lass-making  to 
the  priests  of  Vulcan  at  Thebes  and  Memphis,  the  greatest 
chemists  in  the  ancient  world.  The  Egyptians  are  also 
known  to  have  made  enamels  of  divers  colors  which  they  ap- 
plied on  pottery,  magnificent  specimens  of  which  are  still  ex- 
tant, and  are  called  Egyptian  porcelain.  These  are  chiefly 
covered  with  beautiful  blue  or  green,  and  groups  of  flowers 
or  designs  are  traced  in  black.  Glass  beads  and  other  orna- 
ments made  of  that  substance,  skillfully  manufactured  and 
beautifully  colored,  have  been  found  adorning  mummies, 
which  are  known  to  be  upward  of  three  thousand  years  old. 
It  is  certain  that  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  Alexandria,  were  long 
celebrated  for  their  glass,  and  furnished  the  greater  propor- 
tion of  that  used  at  Rome.  Under  the  Roman  Empire  the 
Egyptians  still  preserved  their  superiority  in  the  art  of  glass- 
making,  and  it  is  said  that  Aurelian  caused  them  to  pay 
their  tribute  in  that  manufacture.  Adrian  mentions  that  he 
had  received  drinking-glasses  of  various  colors  from  a  priest 
of  a  famous  temple  in  Egypt,  and  gives  instructions  that 
they  are  not  to  be  used  but  on  the  greatest  occasions,  and  on 
the  most  solemn  feast  days.  To  these  places  the  art  was 
exclusively  confined  for  some  centuries,  and  was  an  article 
of  luxury,  being  chiefly  in  the  form  of  urns  or  drinking-cups 
of  the  most  elaborate  workmanship,  and  exquisitely  embel- 
lished with  raised,  chased,  or  ornamented  figures.  The  Bar- 
berini  or  Portland  Vase,  composed  of  deep  blue  glass,  with 
figures  of  a  delicate  white  opaque  substance  raised  in  relief, 
is  a  splendid  specimen,  and  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  Alex- 
ander Severus,  who  died  a.d.  285. 

The  art  of  glass- making  seems  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Italy  by  the  Romans  after  their  conquests  in  Asia  in  the 
time  of  Cicero,  and  the  first  glass  works  there  were  said  to 
have  been  near  the  Flaminian  Circus.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  these  workmen  were  imported  from  Egypt.  The  use  of 
glass  seems  rapidly  to  have  increased,  and  to  have  become 
very  common,  for  we  find  an  emperor  in  the  third  century  of 
the  Christian  era  saying,  that  he  was  disgusted  with  so  low 
and  vulgar  an  object  as  glass,  and  that  he  would  only  drink 
from  vessels  of  gold.  By  this  time  the  manufacture  of  glass 
was  so  considerable  that  an  impost  was  laid  on  it,  and  it  was 


192  Five  Black  Arts. 

extensively  employed  in  the  decorations  of  buildings,  while  in 
glass  mosaics  were  combined  the  most  brilliant  colors. 

From  the  circumstance  of  colored  glass  beads  and  amulets 
having  been  found  among  Druidical  remains  in  England,  it 
has  been  argued  by  Pennant  and  others,  that  the  art  of 
making  glass  was  known  in  Britain  before  its  invasion  by  the 
Romans.  It  can  hardly,  however,  be  believed  that  a  people 
who  had  made  very  trifling  advances  in  civilization,  and  who, 
it  is  known,  were  entirely  unacquainted  with  any  other  art, 
should  be  found  not  only  conversant  with  the  manufacture  of 
glass,  a  complicated  and  highly  ingenious  process,  but  should 
excel  in  it ;  for  the  beads  and  amulets  spoken  of  are  of  ex- 
quisite workmanship,  and  beautifully  colored  in  imitation  of 
the  rarest  and  most  precious  stones.  There  seems  little 
doubt,  therefore,  that  the  ancient  Britons  procured  these  in 
the  course  of  traflSc  with  the  Syrians,  who  visited  the  island, 
as  we  do  those  in  the  South  Seas,  to  drive  a  trade  with  their 
savage  inhabitants  in  toys  and  trinkets,  giving  them  these  in 
exchange  for  skins  or  other  natural  productions.  By  what- 
ever means,  however,  these  ornaments  came  into  Britain,  ic 
is  certain  that  they  were  in  extensive  use,  though  principally 
for  religious  purposes,  long  prior  to  the  Roman  invasion,  as 
they  are  found  in  barrows  or  tumuli  of  a  much  older  date. 
One  at  Stonehenge,  in  particular,  on  being  opened,  was  found 
to  be  filled  with  them. 

Glain  Neidyr,  or  Druidical  glass  rings,  generally  about  half 
as  wide  as  our  finger  rings,  but  much  thicker,  have  frequently 
been  found.  The  vulgar  superstition  regarding  these  was, 
that  they  were  produced  by  snakes  joining  their  heads  to- 
gether and  hissing,  when  a  kind  of  bubble  like  a  ring  was 
formed  round  the  head  of  them,  which  the  others,  continu- 
ing to  hiss,  blew  on  till  it  came  off  at  the  tail,  when  it  imme- 
diately hardened  into  a  glass  ring.  Success  was  thought  to 
attend  any  one  who  was  fortunate  enough  to  find  one  of  those 
snake-stones.  They  were  evidently  beads  of  glass  employed 
by  the  Druids,  under  the  name  of  charms,  to  deceive  the  vul- 
gar. They  are  usually  of  a  green  color,  but  some  of  them 
are  blue,  and  others  variegated  with  wavy  streaks  of  blue, 
red,  and  white. 

Glass  utensils  have  been  found  in  Herculaneum,  which  city 
was  destroyed  by  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  in  the  reign 


J 


Glass — History.  193 

of  Titiis  (a.d.  79).  A  plate  of  glass  also  found  there  has  oc- 
casioned much  speculation  as  to  its  uses.  Similar  plates,  to 
which  Pliny  gives  the  name  of  vitrece  camerce^  seem  to  have 
been  employed,  in  a  manner  not  very  well  understood  by  us, 
as  paneling  for  their  rooms.  It  is  disputed  whether  or  not 
glass  was  used  in  llerculaneum  for  windows. 

Dion  Cassius  and  Petronius  Arbiter  concur  in  their  account 
of  the  discovery  of  malleable  or  ductile  glass  by  a  celebrated 
Roman  architect,  whose  success  in  the  restoration  to  its  posi- 
tion of  a  portico  which  leaned  to  one  side  had  roused  the  envy 
and  jealousy  of  Tiberius,  and  occasioned  his  banishment  from 
Rome.  Thiiikirjg  that  his  discovery  would  disarm  the  em- 
peror's wrath,  the  artist  appeared  before  him  bearing  a  glass 
vessel,  which  he  dashed  upon  the  ground.  Notwithstanding 
the  violence  of  the  blow,  it  was  merely  dimpled  as  if  it  had 
been  brass.  Taking  a  hammer  from  his  breast,  he  then  beat 
it  out  into  its  original  shape ;  but  instead  of  giving  him  the 
reward  which  he  had  expected,  the  emperor  ordered  the  un- 
fortunate artisan  to  be  beheaded,  remarking,  that  if  his  dis- 
covery were  known,  gold  would  soon  be  held  of  as  little  value 
as  common  clay.  Tliis  is  probably  another  version  of  the  story 
told  by  Pliny,  of  an  artificer  who  made  the  same  discovery, 
and  whose  workshop  was  demolished  by  those  who  had  an  in- 
terest in  preventing  the  introduction  of  an  ai  tide  which  would 
lower  the  value  of  gold,  silver,  and  brass.  Although  it  might 
not  be  justifiable  to  give  unqualified  disbelief  to  these  stories, 
yet  the  knowledge  we  at  present  possess  would  restrict  the 
possibility  of  such  a  discovery  within  the  narrowest  limits. 
The  union  of  the  properties  of  malleability  and  vitrification 
seems  to  be  incompatible.  Some  metallic  substances,  by  the 
application  of  intense  heat,  are  reduced  to  the  state  of  glass, 
but  at  the  same  time  lose  their  malleability  ;  which  fact  would 
seem  to  imply  that  it  is  impossible  to  communicate  the  latter 
property  to  glass.  The  extraordinary  stories  above  mentioned 
have,  however,  been  rationally  enough  explained  by  modern 
chemists.  It  has  been  observed  by  Kunckel,  that  a  composi- 
tion having  a  glossy  appearance,  and  sufficiently  pliant  to  be 
wrought  by  the  hammer,  may  be  formed :  and  by  Neumann, 
that,  in  the  fusion  of  muriate  of  silver,  a  kind  of  glass  is 
formed,  which  may  be  shaped  or  beaten  into  different  figures, 

Kud  may  be  pronounced  in  some  degree  ductile.      Blancourt, 


194  Five  Black  Arts. 

in  his  U Art  de  la  Verrerie,  mentions  an  artist  who  presented 
a  bust  of  ductile  glass  to  Cardinal  Richelieu,  minister  of  Louis 
XIII.  But  he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  more  fortunate  than 
his  predecessors  ;  for  he  was  doomed  to  imprisonment  for  life, 
for  *'  the  politic  reasons,"  as  Blancourt  with  much  simplicity 
observes  (we  quote  from  the  translation  published  in  1699), 
"  which,  it  is  believed,  the  cardinal  entertained  from  the  con- 
sideration of  the  consequences  of  that  secret,"  which  no  doubt 
led  him  to  fear  lest  the  established  interests  of  French  glass 
manufacturers  might  be  injured  by  the  discovery.  From  ex- 
pressions used  by  Blancourt  in  other  parts  of  his  work,  we 
think,  that  by  malleable  glass,  such  as  was  produced  by  this 
artist,  he  understood  some  composition  similar  to  those  which 
Kunckel  and  Neumann  discovered,  and  was  not  very  exact 
in  limiting  the  term  to  that  vitreous  sabstance  which  we  now 
generally  understand  when  we  speak  of  glass. 

The  precise  period  at  which  the  making  of  window-glass 
came  into  practice  is  not  now  certainly  known.  The  Roman 
windows  were  filled  with  a  semi-transparent  substance  called 
lapis  specularis,  a  fossil  of  the  class  of  mica  which  readily 
splits  into  thin  smooth  laminae  or  plates.  This  substance  is 
found  in  masses  of  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  breadth,  and  three 
in  thickness ;  and,  when  sliced,  very  much  resembles  horn, 
instead  of  which  it  is  to  this  day  often  employed  by  lantern- 
makers.  The  Romans  were  chiefly  supplied  with  this  article 
from  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  it  abounds.  So  good  a 
substitute  for  glass  is  it  said  to  have  been,  that,  besides  being 
employed  for  the  admission  of  light  into  the  Roman  houses, 
it  was  also  used  in  the  construction  of  hot-houses,  for  raising 
and  protecting  delicate  plants ;  so  that,  by  using  it,  the  Em- 
peror Tiberius  had  cucumbers  at  his  table  throughout  the 
whole  year.  It  is  still  much  emploj'ed  in  Russia  instead  of 
glass  for  windows. 

There  is  no  positive  mention  of  the  use  of  glass  for  windows 
before  the  time  of  Lactantius,  at  the  close  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. But  the  passage  in  that  writer  which  records  the  fact 
(De  Opif.  Dei,  cap.  8),  also  shows  that  the  lapis  specularis 
still  retained  its  place.  Glass  windows  are  distinctly  men- 
tioned by  St.  Jerome,  as  being  in  use  in  his  time  (a.d.  422). 
After  this  period  we  meet  with  frequent  mention  of  them. 
Joannes  Phillipinus  (a.d.  630)  states  that  glass  was  fastened 
into  the  windows  with  plaster. 


Glass — History.  195 

The  Venerable  Bede  asserts  that  glass  windows  were  first 
introduced  into  England  in  the  year  674,  by  the  Abbot  Bene- 
dict, who  brought  over  artificers  skilled  in  the  art  of  making 
window-glass,  to  glaze  the  church  and  monastery  of  Wear- 
mouth.  The  use  of  window-glass,  however,  was  then,  and 
for  many  centuries  afterward,  confined  entirely  to  buildings 
appropriated  to  religious  purposes  ;  but  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  so  much  in  demand,  though  still  confined  to  sacred 
edifices  and  ornamental  purposes,  that  glazmg  had  become  a 
regular  trade.  This  appears  from  a  contract  entered  into  by 
the  church  authorities  of  York  Cathedral  in  1338  with  a 
glazier,  to  glaze  the  west  windows  of  that  structure  ;  a  piece 
of  work  which  he  undertook  to  perform  at  the  rate  of  sixpence 
per  foot  for  white  glass,  and  one  shilling  per  foot  for  colored. 
Glass  windows,  however,  did  not  become  common  in  England 
till  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.  Until  this  period  they 
were  rarely  to  be  found  in  private  houses,  and  were  deemed 
a  great  luxury,  and  a  token  of  great  magnificence.  The 
windows  of  the  houses  were  till  then  filled  with  oiled  paper, 
or  wooden  lattices.  In  cathedrals,  these  and  sheets  of  linen 
supplied  the  place  of  glass  till  the  eighth  century  ;  in  meaner 
edifices  lattices  continued  in  use  till  the  eighteenth. 

The  glass  of  the  Venetians  was  superior  to  any  made  else- 
where, and  for  many  years  commanded  the  market  of  nearly 
all  Europe.  Their  most  extensive  glass-works  were  establish- 
ed at  Murano,  a  small  village  in  the  neighborhood  of  Venice ; 
but  the  produce  was  always  recognized  by  the  name  of  Vene- 
tian glass.  Baron  von  Lowhen,  in  his  Analysis  of  Nobility 
in  its  Origin^  states  that,  "  so  useful  were  the  glass-makers 
at  one  period  in  Venice,  and  so  great  the  revenue  accruing 
to  the  republic  from  their  manufacture,  that,  to  encourage  the 
men  engaged  in  it  to  remain  in  Murano,  the  senate  made 
them  all  burgesses  of  Venice,  and  allowed  nobles  to  marry 
their  daughters ;  whereas,  if  a  nobleman  marries  the  daugh- 
ter of  any  other  tradesman,  the  issue  were  not  reputed  noble." 

The  skill  of  the  Venetians  in  glass-making  was  especially 
remarkable  in  the  excellence  of  their  mirrors.  Beckman,  who 
has  minutely  investigated  the  subject,  is  of  opinion  that  the 
manufacture  of  glass  mirrors  certainly  was  attempted,  but 
not  with  complete  success,  in  Sidon,  at  a  very  early  period ; 
but  that  they  fell  into  disuse,  and  were  almost  forgotten  until 


196  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  thirteenth  century.  Previously  to  this  period,  plates  of 
polished  metal  were  used  at  the  toilet ;  and  in  the  rudeness 
of  the  first  ideas  which  suggested  the  substitution  of  glass, 
the  plates  were  made  of  a  deep  black  color  to  imitate  them. 
Black  foil  even  was  laid  behind  them  to  increase  their  opacity. 
The  metal  miirors,  however,  remained  in  use  long  after  the 
introduction  of  their  fragile  rivals,  bat  at  length  they  wholly 
disappeared  ;  a  result  effected  chiefly  by  the  skill  of  the  Vene- 
tians, who  improved  their  manufacture  to  such  a  degree  that 
they  speedily  acquired  a  celebrity  which  secured  an  immense 
sale  for  them  throughout  all  Europe. 

From  Italy  the  art  of  glass-making  found  its  way  into 
France,  where  an  attempt  was  made,  in  the  year  1684,  to  ri- 
val the  Venetians  in  the  manufacture  of  mirrors.  The  first 
essay  was  unsuccessful ;  but  another,  made  in  1665,  under 
the  patronage  of  the  celebrated  Colbert,  in  which  French 
•workmen  who  had  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  art  at  Mu- 
rano  were  employed,  had  better  fortune.  But  a  few  years 
afterward,  this  establishment,  which  was  situated  in  the  vil- 
lage of  Tourlaville,  near  Cherbourg  in  Lower  Normandy, 
was  also  threatened  with  ruin  by  a  discovery  or  rather  im- 
provement in  the  art  of  glass -making,  effected  by  one  Abra- 
ham Thevart.  This  improvement  consisted  in  casting  plates 
of  much  larger  dimensions  than  it  had  hitherto  been  deemed 
possible  to  do.  Thevart's  first  plates  were  cast  at  ParL^,  and 
astonished  every  artist  by  their  magnitude.  They  were  eighty- 
four  inches  long  and  fifty  inches  wide,  whereas  none  previous- 
ly made  exceeded  forty-five  or  fifty  inches  in  length.  The- 
vart was  bound  by  his  patent  to  make  all  his  plates  at  least 
sixty  inches  in  length  and  forty  in  breadth.  In  1695  the  two 
companies,  Thevart's  and  that  at  Tourlaville,  united  their  in- 
terest, but  were  so  unsuccessful,  that,  in  1701,  they  were  un- 
able to  pay  their  debts,  and  were  in  consequence  compelled 
to  discharge  most  of  the  workmen,  and  abandon  several  of 
their  furnaces.  Next  year,  however,  a  company  was  formed 
under  the  management  of  Antoine  d'Agincourt,  who  re-en- 
gaged the  discharged  workmen  ;  and  the  works  realized  con- 
siderable profits  to  the  proprietors,  a  circumstance  which  is 
attributed  wholly  to  the  prudent  management  of  D' Agincourt. 

Early  in  the  fourteenth  century  the  French  government 
made  a  coacession  in  favor  of  glass-making,  by  decreeing 


Glass — IIistoiiy.  197 

that  not  only  should  no  derogation  from  noVility  follow  the 
practice  of  the  art,  but  that  none  save  gentlemen,  or  the  sons 
of  noblemen,  sliould  venture  to  engage  in  any  of  its  branches, 
even  as  working  artisans.  This  limitation  was  accompanied 
by  a  grant  of  a  royal  charter  of  incorporation,  conveying 
important  privileges,  under  which  the  occupation  became  even- 
tually a  source  of  great  wealth  to  several  families  of  distinc- 
tion. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  manufacturing  of  window-glass 
was  first  introduced  into  England  in  the  year  1557.  But  a 
contract,  quoted  by  Horace  Walpole  in  his  Anecdotes  of 
Painting^  proves  that  this  article  was  made  in  England  up- 
ward of  a  century  before  that  period.  This  curious  docu- 
ment is  dated  in  1489,  and  appears  to  be  a  contract  between 
the  Countess  of  Warwick  and  John  Prudde  of  Westminster, 
glazier,  whom  she  employed,  with  other  tradesmen,  to  erect 
and  embellish  a  magnificent  tomb  for  the  earl,  her  husband, 
John  Prudde  is  thereby  bound  to  use  ''  no  glass  of  England, 
but  glass  from  beyond  seas ;"  a  stipulation  which,  besides  show- 
ing that  the  art  of  makirjg  window-glass  was  known  and  prac- 
ticed in  England  in  the  fifteenth  century,  seems  also  to  indi- 
cate that  it  was  inferior  to  what  could  be  obtained  from 
abroad.  The  finer  sort  of  window-glass  was  made  at  Crutch- 
ed  Friars,  London,  in  1557.  In  the  year  lt)o5,  Sir  Robert 
Maxwell  introduced  the  use  of  coal  fuel  instead  of  wood,  and 
procured  workmen  from  Venice ;  but  many  years  elapsed 
before  the  English  manufactories  equaled  the  Venetians  and 
French  in  the  quality  of  these  articles.  The  first  flint-glass 
made  in  England  was  manufactured  at  the  Savoy  House,  in 
the  Strand ;  and  the  first  plate-glass  for  looking-glasses,  coach 
windows,  and  similar  purposes,  was  made  at  Lambeth,  by  Ve- 
netian workmen,  brought  over  in  1670,  by  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham. From  that  period  the  English  glass  manufactories, 
aided  by  the  liberal  bounties  granted  them  in  cash  upon  glass 
sold  for  export,  became  powerful  and  successful  rivals  of  the 
Venetians  and  French  manufactories.  The  bounty  on  glass 
exported,  which  the  government  paid  to  the  manufacturer,  was 
not  derived  from  any  tax  by  impost,  or  excise,  previously 
laid  ;  for  all  such  were  returned  to  the  manufacturer  together 
with  the  bounty,  thereby  lessening  the  actual  cost  of  the  ar- 
ticle from  25  to  50  per  cent.,  and  enabling  the  English  ex- 


198  Five  Black  Arts. 

porter  to  compete  successfully  in  foreign  markets.  This  boun- 
ty provision  was  annulled  during  the  premiership  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  together  with  all  the  excise  duty  on  home  con- 
sumption. 

The  art  of  glass-making  was  introduced  into  Scotland  in 
the  reign  of  James  VI.  An  exclusive  right  to  manufacture 
it  within  the  kingdom,  for  the  space  of  thirty-one  years,  was 
granted  by  that  monarch  to  Lord  George  Hay,  in  the  year 
1610.  This  right  his  lordship  transferred  in  1627,  for  a  con- 
siderable sum,  to  Thomas  Robinson,  merchant-tailor  in  Lon- 
don, who  again  disposed  of  it  for  250/.,  to  !Sir  Robert  Man- 
sell,  vice-admiral  of  England.  The  first  manufactory  of  glass 
in  Scotland,  an  extremely  rude  one,  was  established  at  We- 
myss  in  Fife.  Regular  works  were  afterward  commenced 
at  Prestonpans,  Leith,  and  Dumbarton.  Crown-glass  is  now 
manufactured  at  Warrington,  St.  Helens,  Eccleston,  Old 
Swan,  and  Newton,  Lancashire ;  at  Birmingham,  Hunslet 
near  Leeds,  and  Bristol.  It  is  also  manufactured  of  excel- 
lent quality  on  the  Tyne  and  Wear.  Great  improvements 
have  recently  been  made  in  the  manufacture  of  crown-glass; 
and  we  believe  this  article,  as  made  in  England,  is  superior 
in  quality  to  that  of  any  other  nation. 

The  manufacture  of  glass  was  introduced  into  the  Ameri- 
can States  in  17b0  by  Robert  Hewes,  a  citizen  of  Boston, 
who  erected  a  factory  in  the  then  forest  of  New  Hampshire. 
The  chief  aim  of  Mr.  Hewes  was  to  supply  window-glass, 
but  he  did  not  succeed.  Another  attempt  was  made  in  1800, 
when  a  factory  was  built  in  Boston  for  making  crown  window- 
glass  ;  but  this  was  unsuccessful,  till  a  German  named  Link, 
in  1803,  took  charge  of  the  works,  and  the  State  of  Mas- 
sachusetts agreed  to  pay  the  proprietors  a  bounty  on  every  ta- 
ble of  window-glass  they  made  ;  after  which  the  manufacture 
was  carried  on  successfully,  the  glass  steadily  improving  in 
quality,  and  becoming  famed  through  all  the  States  as  Boston 
window-glass.  The  same  company,  in  the  year  1822,  erected 
new  and  more  extensive  works  at  Boston.  The  mystery  at- 
tached to  the  art  of  glass-making  followed  it  into  America. 
The  glass-blower  was  considered  a  magician,  and  myriads 
visited  the  newly-erected  works,  looking  on  the  man  who 
could  transmute  earthy  and  opaque  matter  into  a  transparent 
and  brilliant  sub«?tance,  as  an  alchemist  who  could  transmute 
base  metal  into  gold. 


Glass — History.  199 

Since  the  manufacture  of  flint-glass  was  introduced  into 
the  Eastern  States  there  have  been  above  forty  companies 
formed  from  time  to  time,  nearly  thirty  of  which  have  proved 
faiUires.  There  are  now  ten  in  operation,  two  of  which  are 
at  East  Cambrid<ije,  three  at  South  Boston,  one  at  Sandwich, 
three  near  New  York  City,  and  one  at  Philadelphia.  48,000 
tons  of  coal,  <)500  tons  of  silex,  2600  tons  ash,  niter,  etc., 
and  3800  tons  of  lead  are  annually  consumed  m  the  manu- 
facture of  flint-glass. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Pittsburg,  in  the  "Western  States,  are 
nine  manufactories  of  flint-glass  and  ten  of  window-glass, 
and  in  the  river  towns  are  fifteen  window-glass  factories. 

There  is  good  reason  for  supposing  that  the  art  of  col- 
oring glass  is  coeval  with  the  art  of  glass-making  itself. 
It  is  certain  that  the  art  was  known  in  Egypt  at  least  3000 
years  ago.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  beautiful  imita- 
tions of  precious  stones,  found  adorning  mummies  which  are 
known  to  have  existed  for  that  time.  We  meet  with  frequent 
mention  of  specimens  of  Eastern  workmanship  of  corasum- 
mate  beauty,  upon  which  great  value  was  placed.  The 
"works  of  Caylus  and  Winkelmann  furnish  some  striking  instan- 
ces of  ancient  skill  in  the  formation  of  pictures  by  means  of 
delicate  glass  fibers  of  various  hues,  which,  after  being  fitted 
together  with  the  utmost  nicety,  were  conglutinated  by  fu- 
sion into  a  solid  mass.  The  art  of  combining  the  various 
colors  so  as  to  produce  pictures,  such  as  is  now  practiced,  is 
comparatively  of  recent  date.  The  earliest  specimens  of  this 
kind  of  work  discover  a  fictitious  joining  of  different  pieces 
of  glass,  differently  tinged,  and  so  arranged  as,  by  a  species 
of  mosaic  work,  to  produce  the  figure  or  figures  wanted. 
The  various  pieces  are  held  together  generally  by  a  vein  of 
lead,  run  upon  the  back  of  the  picture,  precisely  at  their 
junction. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  Romans  combined  the 
most  brilliant  colors  in  their  mosaics  ;  and  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  mosaics  gave  the  first  idea  of  painted  or  stain- 
ed glass  for  windows  in  the  early  Christain  churches.  In  all 
the  early  specimens  of  Norman  glass,  similar  coloring  and  de- 
sign are  to  be  traced.  Starting  from  the  fourth  century, 
there  is  frequent  mention  of  colored  glass  windows  by 
Greek  and  Latin  authors.     St.  John  Chrysostom  and  St. 


200  Five  Black  Arts. 

Jerome  talk  of  "  windows  of  divers  colors  ;"  and  Lactantius 
says  "'  that  the  soul  perceives  objects  through  our  hodily  eyes 
as  through  windows  garnished  with  transj.arent  glass."  The 
early  basilicas  were  all  adorned  with  colored  glass,  and  the 
early  Christain  poets  sung  in  ecstasies  of  the  effect  produced 
by  the  windows  at  sunrise.  In  the  sixth  century,  Prudetia, 
speaking  of  one  of  these  structures,  says  : — '^The  magnifi- 
cence of  this  temple  is  truly  regal.  The  pious  prince  who 
consecrated  it  has  caused  the  vaults  to  be  painted  at  great 
exfiense,  and  has  clothed  it  with  golden  walls,  so  that  the 
light  of  day  may  repeat  the  fire  of  the  morning.  In  the  win- 
dows is  placed  glass  of  various  colors,  which  shine  like  mead- 
ows decked  in  the  flowers  of  spring."  An  inscription  on  St* 
Agnese  states,  that  that  basilica,  rebuilt  by  the  Emperor 
Ilonorius,  was  decorated  with  glass,  which  produced  the 
most  magnificent  effect.  In  the  sixth  ceritury,  Sancta  Sophia, 
at  Constantinople,  also  received  painted  windows,  which  Paul 
the  Silent  praises  highly.  Procopius  says,  that  day  seemed 
to  be  born  under  the  vaults  of  the  temple ;  and  after  such 
glowing  description  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  glass  was 
stained,  not  colorless. 

The  use  of  colored  glass,  however,  was  not  confined  to 
Greece  and  Italy.  It  rapidly  appeared  in  Gaul.  Gregory 
of  Tours,  in  the  sixth  century,  also  tells  us  that  the  church 
of  St.  Julien  de  Brionde,  in  that  town,  had  colored  glass 
windows ;  and  the  Bishop  of  Poictiers,  describing  N6tre-Darae 
of  Paris,  admired  the  effect  produced  by  the  light  falling  up- 
on the  vaults  and  walls  after  passing  through  the  painted 
glass,  and  compares  it  to  the  first  tints  of  the  morning  sun. 

In  England,  St.  Wilfred,  who  lived  early  in  the  eighth 
century,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  introduce  painted 
glass  windows,  and  for  that  purpose  had  workmen  brought 
from  France  or  Ltaly. 

The  first  painted  glass  executed  in  England  was  in  the 
time  of  King  John  ;  previously  to  this,  all  stained  or  painted 
glass  was  imported  from  Italy.  The  next  notice  of  it  occurs 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  The  treasurer  of  that  monarch 
orders  that  there  be  painted,  on  three  glass  windows  in  the 
chapel  of  St.  John,  a  little  Virgin  Mary  holding  the  child, 
and  the  Trinity,  and  St.  John  the  Apostle.     Some  time  after, 


^' 


/ 


Glass — History.  201 

he  issues  another  mandate  for  two  painted  windows  in 
the  hall. 

Even  at  this  early  period,  however,  England  hoasted  of 
eminent  native  artists  in  glass  painting,  amongst  the  first  of 
whom  was  John  Thornton,  glazier  of  Coventry.  This  per- 
son was  employed,  in  the  time  of  Henry  IV.,  by  the  dean 
and  chapter  of  York  cathedral,  to  paint  the  eastern  window 
of  that  splendid  edifice ;  and  for  the  beautiful  and  masterly 
workmanship  which  he  exhibited  in  this  specimen  of  his  skill, 
he  received  four  shillings  per  week  of  regular  wages.  He 
was  bound  to  finish  the  work  in  less  than  three  years,  and  to 
receive,  over  and  above  the  weekly  allowance,  one  hundred 
shillings  for  each  year;  and  if  the  work  was  done  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  his  employers,  he  was  to  receive,  on  its  comple- 
tion, a  further  sum  of  10/. 

From  this  period  downward  there  have  been  many  skillful 
native  artists,  although  the  Reformation  greatly  impeded 
the  progress  of  the  art,  by  banishing  the  ungodly  ostentation 
of  ornamented  windows  from  churches ;  indeed,  so  serious 
was  this  interruption,  that  the  art  had  nearly  altogether  dis- 
appeared in  the  time  of  Elizabeth.  Amongst  the  most  eminent 
glass  painters  who  first  appeared  upon  the  revival  of  the  art, 
were  Isaac  Oliver,  born  in  1616,  and  William  Price,  who 
lived  about  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  This  ar- 
tist was  succeeded  by  a  person  at  Birmingham,  who,  in  1757, 
fitted  up  a  window  for  Lord  Lyttleton,  in  the  church  of 
Hagley.  To  him  succeeded  one  Pecket  of  York,  who  at- 
tained considerable  notoriety,  but  who  was  entirely  ignorant 
of  the  true  principles  of  the  art. 

During  all  this  time,  however,  and  indeed  until  a  compara- 
tively recent  date,  painted  glass  was  regarded  as  too  costly  and 
too  magnificent  an  article  to  be  otherwise  employed  than  in 
decorating  religious  edifices  or  the  palaces  of  nobles ;  and 
even  in  the  the  latter  case  it  was  but  sparingly  used.  Mod- 
ern improvement  has  placed  this  beautiful  ornament  within 
the  reach  of  very  ordinary  circumstances ;  and  the  art  of 
staining  glass  is  now  practiced  with  great  success,  and  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  decorating  our  domestic  as  well  as  our  palatial 
and  ecclesiastical  architecture. 

The  colors  of  modern  artists,  we  venture  to  allege,  notwith- 
standing what  is  often  urged  to  the  contrary,  equal  in  variety 


202  Five  Black  Arts. 

and  richness  those  of  the  ancients,  and,  with  the  superior 
knowledge  which  we  now  possess  of  the  principles  of  drawing, 
and  of  bringing  several  colors  together  on  a  single  sheet,  en- 
couragement alone  is  wanting  to  attract  artists  of  talent  and 
inventive  genius  to  the  pursuit  of  the  art,  and  to  carry  it  to  a 
greater  height  of  excellence  than  it  has  ever  reached  in  the 
hands  of  their  predecessors. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  CROWN-GLASS. 

In  order  to  secure  success  to  his  operations,  the  glass 
manufacturer  must  bestow  the  utmost  care  upon  the  erection 
of  his  furnaces.  They  must  be  well  and  substantially  built, 
of  the  best  materials,  of  the  most  approved  construction,  and 
under  the  direction  of  a  builder  of  tried  skill  and  extensive 
experience.  A  false  economy  in  these  respects  cannot  fail 
of  leading  to  the  most  ruinous  results. 

Crown-glass  is  the  best  kind  of  glass  now  employed  in  the 
glazing  of  windows,  and  is  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
common,  broad,  or  spread  glass,  which  was  in  use  before  the 
introduction  of  crown-glass,  but  which,  on  account  of  its  in- 
ferior quality,  is  now  rarely  used.  In  the  manufacture  of 
crown-glass  the  following  furnaces  and  arches  are  required, 
viz.,  calcar  arch,  main  furnace,  bottoming  hole,  flashing  furn- 
ace, nose  hole,  and  annealing  kiln. 

A  Calcar  Arch  for  burning  frit  is  a  common  reverberatory 
furnace,  and  is  about  ten  feet  long,  seven  feet  wide  and  two 
feet  high.  The  crown  asd  sides  are  built  of  fire  brick,  and 
the  other  parts  of  common  brick.  The  bottom  should  be  care- 
fully joined  and  cemented,  as  the  salt  is  apt  to  ooze  through  it. 

The  Main  or  Glass-making  Furnace  is  an  oblong,  built 
in  the  center  of  a  brick  cone,  laroje  enou^rh  to  contain  within 
it  two  or  three  pots  at  each  side  of  the  grate-room,  which  is 
either  divided,  or  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  furnace,  as 
the  manufacturer  likes. 

The  arch  is  of  an  elliptic  form.  A  barrel  arch,  that  is, 
an  arch  shaped  like  the  half  of  a  barrel  cut  longwise  through 
the  center,  is  sometimes  used.  But  this  soon  gives  way  when 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  crown-glass,  although  it  does  very 
well  in  the  clay  furnace  for  bottle-houses. 

The  best  stone  in  England  for  building  furnaces  is  fire-stone 


Glass— Crown.  203 

from  Coxgreen,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Newcastle.  Its  qual- 
ity is  a  close  </mzn,and  it  contains  a  greater  quantity  of  talc 
than  the  common  fire-stone,  which  seems  to  be  the  chief  reason 
of  its  resisting  the  fire  better.  The  great  danger  in  building 
furnaces  is,  lest  the  cement  at  the  top  should  give  way  with 
the  excessive  heat,  and  by  dropping  into  the  pots,  spoil  the 
metal.  The  top  should  therefore  be  built  with  stones  only, 
as  loose  as  they  can  hold  together  after  the  centers  are  re- 
moved, and  without  any  cement  whatever.  The  stones  ex- 
pand and  come  quite  close  together  when  annealing ;  an  op- 
eration which  takes  irom  eight  to  fourteen  days  at  most.  There 
is  thas  less  risk  of  any  thing  dropping  from  the  roof  of  the 
furnace. 

The  inside  of  the  furnace  is  built  either  of  Stourbridge 
fire-clay  annealed,  or  the  Newcastle  fire-stone,  to  the  thick- 
ness of  sixteen  inches.  The  outside  is  built  of  common  brick 
about  nine  inches  in  thickness. 

The  furnace  is  thrown  over  an  ash-pit,  or  cave  as  it  is 
called,  which  admits  the  atmospheric  air,  and  promotes  the 
combustion  of  the  furnuce.  This  cave  is  built  of  stone  until 
it  comes  beneath  the  grate-room,  when  it  is  formed  of  fire- 
brick. The  abutments  are  useful  for  binding  and  keeping 
the  furnace  together,  and  are  built  of  masonry.  The  furnaces 
are  stoutly  clasped  with  iron  all  round,  to  keep  them  tight. 
In  four-pot  furnaces  this  is  unnecessary,  provided  there  be 
four  good  abutments. 

Bottoming  Hole.  The  interior  is  of  common  fire-brick, 
the  mouth  either  of  common  fire-brick  or  Stourbridge  clay, 
and  the  outside  entirely  of  common  brick. 

Flashing  Furnace.  The  outside  is  built  of  common  brick, 
the  inside  of  fire-brick,  and  the  mouth  or  nose  of  Stourbridge 
fire-clay. 

J^ose  Hole.  This  is  a  small  aperture  off  the  flashing  furn- 
ace, and  of  the  same  materials. 

Anyiealing  Kiln.  It  is  built  of  common  brick,  except 
around  the  grate-room,  where  fire-brick  is  used. 

The  materials  of  which  crown-glass  is  usually  composed  are 
kelp  and  fine  white  sand.  Pearl  ashes,  or  certain  other  al- 
kalies, sometimes  supply  the  place  of  the  former  of  these 
substances.  The  quality  of  kelp  is  extremely  various.  That 
from  Orkney  is  superior  to  what  is  made  in  Ireland,  the  He- 


204  Five  Black  Arts. 

briles,  or  the  lower  parts  of  Scotland.  It  is  found  to  con- 
tain less  alkali,  and  to  produce  orjass  of  a  better  color.*  For 
the  glass-maker's  purposes  the  kelp  of  the  Orkneys  is  decid- 
edly the  best.  It  is  freer  from  sulphur  than  the  others,  the 
presence  of  which  makes  the  glass  green,  crude,  and  fretful. 
The  following  is  the  course  pursued  in  the  preparation  of  kelp. 
The  fuci  are  cut  from  the  rocks  in  the  months  of  May,  June, 
and  July.  They  are  then  brought  to  the  shore,  and,  after 
being  spread  out  and  dried,  are  thrown  into  a  pit  lined  with 
stones,  in  which  a  birge  fire  has  been  previously  kindled.  On 
this  fire  the  weed  is  heaped  from  time  to  time,  until  a  large 
mass  is  accumulated,  and  the  whole  is  reduced  to  a  state  of 
fusion.  It  is  then  well  mixed  and  leveled,  and  allowed  to  cool. 
When  sufficiently  cold,  it  is  taken  from  the  pit,  and  broken 
into  portable  masses,  for  the  convenience  of  transportation. 
To  prevent  the  dissipation  of  the  alkali,  a  thing  very  apt  to  oc- 
cur, the  greatest  care  is  necessary  in  every  part  of  this  process ; 
in  the  gathering  and  drying,  as  well  as  in  the  burning  of  the 
fuci ;  in  the  treatment  of  the  mass  whilst  in  a  state  of  fusion  ; 
and  in  its  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  duiing  these  operations. 
Kelp  burners  are  but  too  frequently  guilty  of  carelessness  in 
this  respect.  In  some  places  they  burn  the  fuci  in  pits  which 
are  not  lined  with  stones,  and,  of  consequence,  sand  and 
earthy  substances  mingle  with  the  fused  massf  It  is  no 
uncommon  thing  for  the  makers  to  increase  the  weight  of 
kelp  intentionally,  foolishly  thinking  to  procure  a  higher  price 
for  it  by  so  doing.  Such  adulteration  is,  however,  at  once 
detected  by  the  kelp  merchant,  and  the  article,  which  might 
otherwise  have  brought  a  good  price,  is  reduced  to  less  than 
a  third  of  its  value.     The  inferiority  of  the  Lowland  kelp  to 

*Some  eminent  chemists  assert  that,  although  the  usual  quantity  of  kelp 
be  added  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  the  weight  of  the  ^lnaH  produced  is 
nothing  more  than  the  original  weight  of  the  sand.  But  this  is  not  the  case 
with  the  Orkney  kelp,  for  though  it  has  less  alkali,  it  contains  more  insolu- 
ble matter  than  the  West  Highland  kelp,  and  ot  course  produces  a  larger 
quantity  of  glass.  The  West  Highland  yields  glass  of  very  inferior  color 
to  that  procured  by  tiie  use  of  Orkney  kelp. 

t  The  best  mode  of  preparing  kelp,  as  invented  by  Colonel  Fullarton,  is 
by  burning  it  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  throwing  it  down  in  the  I'orm  of 
cakes,  in  the  same  manner  as  frit,  which  we  shall  afterward  have  occasion 
to  discrib.^.  Whf^n  so  prapared,  it  is  more  fit  fo;-  the  gl iss  manufacturer, 
being  free  of  extraneous  matter.  This  method  is  now  employed  by  exten- 
sive makers  of  kelp  in  Ireland. 


Glass — Crown.  205 

that  of  Orkney  and  the  Hebrides,  may  with  safety  be  attrib- 
uted as  nmch  to  to  this  practice  as  to  the  inferiority  of  the 
fuel.  Some  idea,  but  at  best  a  very  uncertain  one,  of  the 
quality  of  kidp  may  be  formed  by  the  examination  of  its  ex- 
ternal appearance.  A  chemical  analysis  of  its  properties 
can  alone  give  security  to  the  manufacturer.  In  preparing 
it  for  the  manufacture  of  glass,  it  is  first  broken  into 
small  pieces,  either  by  the  hand  or  by  a  machine  called  a 
stamper.  It  is  then  put  into  a  mill  and  ground  into  a  fine 
powder,  stones  and  all  other  extraneous  matter  being  picked 
out.  The  powder  is  afterward  passed  through  brass  wire  sieves. 
With  regard  to  the  other  component  part  of  window  glass, 
namely,  sand,  that  of  the  best  description  is  procured  from 
Lynn  Regis,  in  Norfolk.  That  procured  from  Alum  Bay,  on 
the  Western  coast  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  is  also  of  excellent 
quality.  The  superiority  of  this  sand  arises  from  the  circum- 
stance of  its  containing  a  greater  quantity  of  minute  trans- 
parent crystals  than  is  found  in  the  sand  of  any  other  place 
in  the  country.  In  preparing  the  sand,  it  is  usually  washed 
in  a  large  vat  with  boiling  or  cold  water,  until  the  water  runs 
oflf  quite  clear.  The  sand  is  then  put  into  a  calcining  arch, 
where  it  is  subjected  to  a  strong  heat  for  twenty-four  hours. 
Duiing  this  tmui  it  is  kept  red  hot,  and  immediately  on  being 
taken  out  is  plunged  into  pure  cold  water.  This  has  the  effect 
of  dividing  the  {(articles  of  sand,  and  making  it  unite  more 
readily  with  the  alkali  during  the  process  of  calcining.  Some 
use  niter  during  this  process,  which  consumes  any  sulphureous 
matter  that  may  be  present,  or  extraneous  substances  of  an 
animal  or  vegetable  nature,  and  reduces  them  to  an  earth  not 
injurious  to  glass.  When  this  operation  is  completed,  it  is 
removed  into  the  mixing  room,  where  the  proportions  of  ma- 
terial are  adjusted  and  mingled  together,  i)reviously  to  their 
he'mg  fritted  or  calcined.  Here  the  materials,  the  sand  and 
the  kelp  powder,  are  carefully  proportioned,  generally  in  the 
degree  of  eleven  of  kelp  to  seven  of  sand,  some  manufacturers 
using  eleven  to  eight,  which  are  mixed  up  according  to  the 
judgment  of  the  mixer.  The  majority  of  glass  manufacturers 
are  now  givingup  theuseof  kelp.  Within  the  last  few  years  the 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  carbonate  of  soda  have 
been  very  great,  while  it  has  also  fallen  considerably  in  price. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  using  such  an  impure  alkali  as  kelp  with 


206  Five  Black  Arts. 

sand,  carbonate  of  soda  with  sand  and  lime  is  employed,  which 
gives  glass  of  as  good  a  color  as  plate,  and  is  attended  with 
many  other  advantages  which  the  other  materials  do  not  pos- 
sess. Manufacturers,  instead  of  kelp,  purchase  sulphur,  and 
with  it  make  sulphuric  acid.  With  sulphuric  acid  and  muri- 
ate of  soda  they  make  sulphate  of  soda,  to  which  lime,  coal, 
etc.  are  added,  and  thus  produce  carbonate  of  soda,  which, 
with  sand  and  lime,  is  made  into  glass.  The  operations  for 
preparing  these  materials  are  carried  on  within  their  own 
premises  by  several  extensive  glass  manufacturers.  The  fol- 
lowing mixture  has  been  found  to  produce  an  excellent  quality 
of  glass:  3  cwts.  Lynn  sand;  2J  ditto  carbonate  of  soda; 
14  lbs.  niter  ;  14  ditto  lime  ;  7  ditto  charcoal ;  one-fourth  of 
the  above  weight  of  cullet. 

This  mixture  will  make  a  very  excellent  glass  when  the 
furnace  is  kept  at  a  proper  heat.  The  proportions  must,  of 
course,  be  regulated  in  some  degree  by  the  heat  which  the 
furnace  attains.  The  addition  of  any  other  ingredient  will  in- 
jure the  quality  and  color  of  the  glass.  It  may  be  either  fritted 
or  not  before  being  put  into  the  pots.  The  use  of  this  mix- 
ture saves  coals,  time,  and  wages,  as  the  founding  occupies 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  hours  only,  whilst  in  other  cases  the 
time  occupied  by  this  process  is  from  twenty  to  twenty-four 
hours.  It  can  also  be  blown  into  a  thinner  and  finer  substance, 
and  is  thus  liable  to  a  less  duty.  When  the  sand  and  kelp 
are  thoroughly  mixed,  the  compost  is  put  into  a  calcining  arch 
or  reverberatory  furnace,  where  it  is  subjected  to  a  heat  so 
strong  as  to  reduce  it  to  a  semi-fluid  state.  Whilst  in  this 
state,  it  is  stirred  without  intermission,  to  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  knots  containing  more  sand  than  the  rest  of  the  batch, 
an  effect  resulting  from  the  dissipation  of  the  alkali  by  excess 
of  heat.  The  process  of  calcining  requires  more  or  less  time 
according  to  the  varying  properties  of  the  ingredients  com- 
posing the  batch.  From  three  to  four  hours  is  the  time  usu- 
ally occupied  by  each  batch.  The  frit,  as  the  substance  is 
now"  called,  is  taken  from  the  furnace,  spread  upon  a  plate  of 
iron  whilst  yet  hot,  and,  before  it  becomes  quite  cold,  divided 
into  large  cakes.  In  the  opinion  of  many,  it  cannot  be  too 
old  for  use ;  as  when  new  the  glass  made  from  it  is  full  of 
what  are  called  seeds.     It  is  commonly  kept  about  six  months 


Glass— Crown.  207 

by  opulent  manufacturers.  The  last  operation  consists  in 
throwing  the  frit  into  the  melting-pots. 

To  prevent  stones  or  clay  from  the  furnace  falling  into  the 
pot,  those  used  in  making  flint-glass  are  always  covered  in  on 
the  top ;  and  the  same  thing  has  been  tried  in  crown  pots, 
made  with  two  openings,  one  in  the  front  and  one  in  the  back, 
the  back  one  to  be  plugged  up  when  beginning  to  work  from 
the  front  of  the  pot.  This  method  succeeded  very  well,  but 
was  abandoned  from  the  length  of  time  it  required  ;  a  cir- 
cumstance which  more  than  counterbalanced  its  advantages. 

These  pots  or  crucibles  are  made  of  the  finest  clay.  Great 
care  is  requisite  in  the  selection,  and  in  cleansing  it  from  ex- 
traneous particles,  the  presence  of  which,  even  in  the  small- 
est degree,  will  injure  the  pot.  A  fine  powder  procured  by 
grinding  old  crucibles  is  generally  mixed,  in  a  proportion  sel- 
dom larger  than  a  fourth,  with  what  is  termed  the  virgin  clay. 
This  mixture  dries  more  rapidly,  contracts  less  while  drying, 
and  presents  a  firmer  resistance  to  the  action  of  the  fire  and 
alkali  used  in  the  composition  of  glass  than  the  mere  unmixed 
clay.  These  ingredients  having  been  mixed,  they  are  wrought 
into  a  paste  in  a  large  trough,  and  carried  to  the  pot  loft, 
covered  in  such  a  way  as  to  exclude  dust  and  other  minute 
particles.  Here  a  workman  kneads  this  paste  by  tramping 
it  with  his  naked  feet,  turning  it  from  time  to  time  until  it 
becomes  as  tough  as  putty.  It  is  then  made  into  rolls,  and 
wrought,  layer  upon  layer,  into  a  solid  and  compact  body, 
every  care  being  taken  to  keep  it  free  of  vacuities,  as  latent 
air  would,  by  its  expansion  in  the  furnace,  cause  an  immedi- 
ate rupture  of  the  pots. 

After  pots  are  made,  very  great  care  is  necessary  to  bring 
them  to  the  proper  state  of  dryness  before  taking  them  to  the 
annealing  or  pot  arch.  In  drying  they  commonly  shrink 
about  two  inches  in  the  circumference.  When  pots  are  made 
during  summer,  the  natural  temperature  is  sufficient.  In 
winter  they  are  kept  in  a  temperature  of  from  fifty  to  fifty- 
five  degrees  Fahrenheit.  They  remain  in  the  room  where 
they  are  made  for  a  period  varying  from  nine  to  twelve 
months.  Being  afterward  removed  to  another  apartment, 
where  the  heat  is  from  eighty  to  ninety  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
they  are  kept  there  for  about  four  weeks.  They  are  then  re- 
moved for  four  or  five  days,  more  or  less,  according  to  their 


208  Five  Black  Arts. 

previous  state  of  dryness,  to  the  annealing  arcli,  which  is 
gradually  and  cautiously  heated  up  till  it  reaches  the  temper- 
ature of  the  working  furnace,  whither,  after  being  sufficient- 
ly annealed,  they  are  carried  as  quickly  as  possible.  Pots 
last  upon  an  average  from  eight  to  ten  weeks  Their  value 
is  usually  estimated  at  8/.  or  101.  each. 

To  the  frit  thrown  into  these  pots  there  is  added  a  propor- 
tion, about  an  eighth,  of  cullet  or  bruken  crown-glass.  After 
this  has  been  done,  the  furnace  is  raised  to  the  highest  possi- 
ble degree  of  heat.  The  pots  are  filled  every  third  hour  or 
so,  according  as  the  frit  melts,  till  they  are  completely  full. 
The  intensity  of  the  heat  is  then  increased,  if  possible,  till  the 
metal,  as  it  is  now  called,  is  reduced  to  fine  liquid  glass,  which 
is  then  ready  for  the  operations  of  the  workman.*  From  twen- 
ty-f  jur  to  thirty  hours  in  all  are  required  for  this  process, 
which  is  called  founding. f 

The  furnace  is  slackened  for  about  two  hours,  and  the 
metal  being  now  in  a  workable  state,  the  first  operator  who  ap- 
proaches the  furnace  is  called  the  skimmer,  who  skims  off 
all  extraneous  substances  from  the  metal.  Next  follows  the 
gatherer,  who  is  provided  with  an  iron  pipe  or  tube,  six  or 
seven  feet  in  length.     (See  Fig.  1.) 

Having  previously  heated  that  end  of  the  tube  which  takes 
up  the  glass,  he  dips  it  into  the  pot  of  metal ;  and  by  turn- 
ing it  gently  round,  gathers  about  one  and  a  half  pound  of 
liquid  glass  on  the  end  of  it.  Having  allowed  this  to  cool 
for  a  little,  he  again  dips  it  into  the  pot,  and  gathers  an  ad- 
ditional quantity,  of  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  pounds. 
This  is  also  permitted  to  cool  as  before,  when  the  operation 
of  dipping  is  again  repeated,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  met- 
al, from  nine  to  ten  pounds  weight,  is  gathered,  to  form 
what  is  technically  termed  a  table  or  sheet  of  glass.  The  rod, 
thus  loaded,  is  held  for  a  few  seconds  in  a  perpendicular 
position,  that  the  metal  may  distribute  itself  equally  on  all 
sides,  and  that  it  may,  by  its  own  weight,  be  lengthened  out 
beyond  the  rod.  The  operator  then  moulds  the  metal  into 
a  regular  form,  by  rolling  it  on  a  smooth  iron  plate,  called 

*  The  sandiver  or  glass  gall  is  removed  while  the  furnace  is  at  its  extreme 
degree  of  heat. 

t  A  piece  of  wood  about  eleven  inches  long  by  seven  broad,  with  a  hole 
three  inches  by  one  inch,  forms  an  excellent  protection  to  the  eyes  from  the 
heat  to  which  they  are  exposed  when  examining  the  metal  in  the  pots. 


GLASS.  ] 


[  Plate  1. 


F{^  /. 


Glass — Crown.  209 

the  "  marver,"  a   term   corrupted  from  the  French  word 
marhre. 

He  then  blows  strongly  through  the  tube,  when  his  breath 
penetrating  the  red-hot  mass  of  glass,  causes  it  to  swell  out 
into  a  hollow  pear-shaped  vessel.     (See  Fig.  2.) 

The  tube  with  the  elongated  sphere  of  glass  at  the  end  of 
it  is  then  handed  to  the  hlotver,  who  heats  it  a  second  and 
third  time  at  the  furnace,  pressing  the  end,  between  each  blow- 
ing, against  the  bullion  bar,  so  called  from  the  part  thus  press- 
ed forming  the  center  of  the  sheet  or  bull's  eye.  (See  Fig.  3.) 

By  the  dexterous  management  of  this  operation,  the  glass 
is  brought  into  a  somewhat  spherical  form. 

The  blower  heats  a  third  time  at  the  bottoming  hole,  and 
blows  the  metal  into  a  full-sized  globe.     (See  Fig.  4.) 

When  this  part  of  the  process  has  been  completed,  and 
the  glass  has  been  allowed  to  cool  a  little,  it  is  rested  on  the 
casher  box,  and  an  iron  rod,  called  a  '''pontiV^  or  punty  rod, 
on  which  a  little  hot  metal  has  been  previously  gathered,  is 
applied  to  the  flattened  side,  exactly  opposite  the  tube,  which 
is  detached  by  touching  it  with  a  piece  of  iron,  dipped  be- 
forehand in  cold  water,  leaving  a  circular  hole  in  the  glass  of 
about  two  inches  diameter.  The  operation  of  attaching  the 
punty  is  shown  by  Fig.  5. 

Taking  hold  of  the  punty  rod,  the  workman  presents  the 
glass  to  another  part  of  the  furnace  called  the  "  nose  hole," 
where  the  aperture  made  by  its  separation  from  the  tube  ie 
now  presented  and  kept  until  it  has  become  sufficiently  ductile 
to  fit  it  for  the  operation  of  the  flashing  furnace.  Whilst 
here,  it  is  turned  dexterously  round,  slowly  at  first,  and  after- 
ward with  increasing  rapidity ;  and  the  glass  yielding  to  the 
centrifugal  force,  the  aperture  just  mentioned  becomes  en- 
larged.    (See  Fig.  6.) 

The  workman,  taking  great  care  to  preserve,  by  a  regular 
motion,  the  circular  figure  of  the  glass,  proceeds  to  whirl  it 
round  with  increasing  velocity,  until  the  aperture  suddenly 
flies  open  with  a  loud  ruffling  noise,  which  has  been  aptly  com 
pared  to  the  unfurling  of  a  flag  in  a  strong  breeze  ;  and  the 
glass  becomes  a  circular  plane  or  sheet,  of  from  four  to  four 
and  a  half  feet  diameter,  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  ex- 
cept at  the  point  called  bullion  or  bulFs  eye,  where  it  is  at- 

14 


210  Five  Black  Arts. 

tached  to  the  iron  rod.  Figure  7  will  give  some  idea  of  this 
very  beautiful  part  of  the  process. 

The  sheet  of  glass,  now  fully  expanded,  is  moved  round 
with  a  moderate  velocity  until  it  is  sufficiently  cool  to 
retain  its  form.  It  is  carried  to  the  mouth  of  the  kiln  or  an- 
nealing arch,  where  it  is  rested  on  a  bed  of  sand,  and  detached 
from  the  punty  rod  by  shears.  The  sheet  or  table  is  then  lifted 
on  a  wide  pronged  fork,  called  a  faucet  (see  Fig.  8),  and  put 
into  the  arch  to  be  tempered,  where  it  is  ranged  with  many 
others  set  up  edgewise,  and  supported  by  iron  frames  to  pre- 
vent their  bending.  From  four  to  six  hundred  tables  are 
placed  in  one  kiln. 

The  kiln  having  been  clayed  up,  the  fire  is  permitted  to 
die  out,  and  the  heat  diminished  as  gradually  as  possible. 
When  the  glass  is  properly  annealed,  and  sufficiently  cold  to 
admit  of  its  being  handled,  it  is  withdrawn  from  the  oven, 
after  the  removal  of  the  wall  built  into  the  front  of  the  arch, 
and  is  then  quite  ready  for  the  glazier's  use.  It  is  first,  how- 
ever, removed  to  the  manufacturer's  warehouse,  where  the 
circular  sheets  are  cut  into  halves,  and  assorted  into  the  differ- 
ent qualities,  known  to  the  tradesmen  by  the  names  of  sec- 
onds, thirds,  and  fourths. 

We  conclude  our  remarks  on  the  manufacture  by  observing, 
that  the  quality  of  glass  does  not  depend  upon  the  mixtures 
alone,  but  also  upon  the  treatment  it  receives  after  it 
has  been  made,  the  quality  of  the  coals,  and  management  of 
the  furnaces.  Cleanliness  in  every  department  of  the  manu- 
facture, a  general  knowledge  of  chemistry,  and  of  the  art  in 
all  its  details,  with  the  most  unremitting  industry,  and  skill 
in  the  direction  and  government  of  the  operatives,  are  all 
essentially  necessary  for  the  production  of  good  glass. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  BRITISH  SHEET-GLASS. 

This  article  is  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Chances  of  West 
Bromwich,  near  Birmingham,  and  Messrs.  Hartley  and  Com- 
pany, Sunderland,  who,  after  having  visited  the  glass  manu- 
factories of  France,  Belgium,  and  Germany,  commenced,  in 
1832,  the  making  of  British  sheet.  The  principle  upon  which 
it  is  manufactured  is  the  same  as  that  acted  upon  in  the  mak- 
ing of  common  or  green  glass.     The  metal  is  formed  into 


Glass — Sheet.  211 

cylinders,  and  then  flattened  into  sheets.  The  French,  Bel- 
gians, and  Germans,  having  pursued  this  system  for  the  last 
fifty  years  in  making  their  window-glass,  have  much  improved 
the  old  mode  of  making  it;  and  as  the  parties  who  are  now 
manufacturing  this  article  in  England  are  crown-glass  makers, 
and  have  imported  all  the  improvements  adopted  in  the  making 
of  sheet-glass  in  France,  Belgium,  and  Germany,  and  com- 
bined with  these  the  improvements  which  their  experience  as 
crown-glass  makers  had  taught  them  during  the  same  period, 
they  have  surpassed  the  French,  Belgians,  and  Germans  in 
sheet- glass,  and  can  now  compete  with  them  in  all  parts  of 
the  world. 

There  is  no  crown-glass  made  in  France;  and  their  win- 
dow-glass, though  superior  to  our  broad  or  common  glass, 
is  not  equal  to  the  British  sheet.  In  Germany  there  is  little 
crown-glass  made,  and  that  of  a  very  inferior  quality.  The 
greater  part  of  the  glass  made  in  that  country  is  sheet,  and 
it  is  of  much  better  quality  than  the  French  or  Belgian. 
In  Germany  a  common  sort  of  glass  is  made,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner :  Three  or  four  workmen  form  a  partnership, 
and,  having  fixed  upon  a  place  in  the  woods  where  clay  and 
sand  are  easily  met  with,  they  proceed  to  build  a  glass-house 
with  wood  and  clay.  They  then  make  the  pots,  and,  from  the 
■ashes  of  the  wood  which  they  burn,  obtain  potash,  which, 
after  it  has  been  mixed  with  sand,  they  melt  into  glass.  They 
blow  the  metal  into  cylinders,  flatten  it  into  sheets,  cut,  pack, 
in  short,  perform  the  whole  operations  from  first  to  last,  them- 
selves. A  good  deal  of  the  best  of  the  glass  made  in  this  manner 
is  sent  to  Nuremburg,  where  it  is  polished  and  sent  into  Hol- 
land. Some  of  it  is  sometimes  smuggled  into  this  country, 
and  is  known  by  the  designation  of  Dutch  glass. 

The  expense  of  making  British  sheet  is  about  the  same 
as  making  crown-glass,  excepting  in  the  case  of  large  squares, 
when  it  is  much  less ;  in  crown-glass  it  is  very  difficult  to 
get  a  square  34  x  22,  but  in  sheet-glass  the  common  size  is 
40  x  30 ;  nay,  sheets  are  sometimes  made  as  large  as  50  x  36. 
Its  other  advantage  over  crown  is,  that  it  has  none  of  that 
wavy  or  curved  appearance,  by  which  the  vision  is  so  much 
distorted  in  crown-glass ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  sheet-glass 
has  rather  an  unpleasant  appearance  when  viewed  from  the 
outside  of  a  building,  in  consequence  of  an  unevenness  of 


212  Five  Black  Arts. 

surface,  technically  termed  cockled;  when  viewed,  however, 
from  the  inside,  it  is  difiScult  to  distinguish  it  from  plate-glass. 

The  materials  employed  in  the  making  of  sheet-glass  are 
the  same  as  those  used  in  the  making  of  crown-glass.  The 
large  melting  furnace  is  also  very  similar;  in  France  and 
Belgium  they  usually  contain  six  or  eight  pots,  but  at  the 
British  manufactories  such  furnaces  contain  ten  pots,  each  con- 
taining seven  cwts.  of  metal,  which  requires  fourteen  hours 
to  melt. 

In  a  line  with  each  pot,  and  four  feet  from  the  ground,  are 
erected  ten  stages,  with  an  open  space  between  each,  of 
about  two  feet,  through  which  the  workman  swings  his  glass 
when  making  cylinders.  When  the  metal  is  ready  for  work- 
ing, the  ten  workmen  take  their  stations,  each  having  his  own 
pot  and  stage,  and  also  an  assistant,  and  commence  making 
the  cylinders,  as  follows :  After  gathering  the  quantity  of 
metal  required  (which  varies  from  three  to  twenty  pounds), 
the  workman  places  it  in  a  horizontal  position  upon  a  wooden 
block,  which  has  been  hollowed,  so  that,  when  the  workman 
turns  the  metal,  it  shall  form  it  into  a  solid  cylindrical  mass. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  assistant,  with  a  sponge  in  his  hand, 
and  a  bucket  of  water  by  his  side,  lets  a  fine  stream  of  water 
run  into  the  block,  which  keeps  the  wood  from  burning,  and 
also  gives  a  brilliancy  to  the  surface  of  the  glass.  The 
water,  the  moment  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  glass,  is 
raised  to  the  boiling  point,  and,  in  that  state,  does  no  injury 
to  the  metal ;  but  it  is  only  when  the  metal  is  at  a  high  tem- 
perature that  such  is  the  case  ;  for,  whenever  the  glass  is  cool- 
ed to  a  certain  degree,  it  immediately  cracks  upon  coming  in 
contact  with  water.  When  the  workman  perceives  that  the 
mass  of  metal  is  sufficiently  formed  and  cooled,  he  raises  the 
pipe  to  his  mouth  at  an  angle  of  about  seventy-five  degrees,  and 
commences  blowing  it,  at  the  same  time  continuing  to  turn  it 
in  the  wood  block,  till  he  perceives  the  diameter  to  be  of 
the  requisite  dimensions,  which  are  usually  about  ten  inches. 
He  then  reheats  this  cylindrical  mass,  and  when  it  is  sufficient- 
ly softened,  commences  swinging  it  over  his  head,  continuing 
to  reheat  and  swing  till  he  has  made  it  the  desired  length, 
which  is  commonly  about  forty  inches.  It  is  now  in  a  cylin- 
drical form,  forty  inches  long  and  ten  inches  in  diameter,  one 
end  being  closed  and  the  other  having  the  pipe  attached  to  it. 
The  workman  now  begins  to  open  the  end  which  is  closed, 


Glass — Sheet.  213 

for  Tvhich  purpose  he  incloses  the  air  in  the  cylinder,  by  stop- 
ping the  aperture  of  the  pipe  with  his  finger;  and  then 
placing  the  closed  end  of  the  cylinder  toward  the  fire,  it 
becomes  softened,  while  at  the  same  time  the  air  within  is 
expanding,  and,  in  about  thirty  seconds,  the  glass  becomes 
too  soft  to  retain  it,  and  bursts,  a  small  aperture  being  form- 
ed at  the  point  of  the  cylinder.  The  workman  then  turns 
the  cylinder  round  very  quickly,  and,  by  keeping  it  warm  at 
the  same  time,  flashes  it  out  perfectly  straight ;  the  other  end, 
which  is  attached  to  the  pipe,  has  now  to  be  cut  off.  This  is 
done  in  the  following  manner :  The  workman  having  gath- 
ered a  small  quantity  of  metal  on  the  pontil,  draws  it  out  into 
a  thread  of  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  laps  it 
round  the  pipe  end  of  the  cylinder,  and,  after  letting  it  re^ 
main  there  for  about  five  seconds,  withdraws  it  suddenly, 
and  immediately  applies  a  cold  iron  to  the  heated  part,  which 
occasions  such  a  sudden  contraction,  that  it  cracks  off  where 
the  hot  string  of  glass  has  been  placed  round  it.  The  work- 
man having  now  formed  a  perfect  cylinder  of  forty  inches  in 
length  and  ten  in  diameter,  has,  before  it  can  be  flattened,  to 
split  it  on  one  side,  so  that  it  can  be  opened  out ;  but  before 
doing  this,  he  is  obliged  to  let  it  cool,  and  then,  laying  the 
cylinder  horizontally  upon  a  bench,  draws  a  red  hot  iron  two 
or  three  times  along  the  inner  surface.  The  cylinder,  thus 
heated,  spUts  along  the  heated  part,  owing  to  the  expansion 
of  the  glass  when  heated,  its  cylindrical  form  preventing  its 
breaking  at  the  point  of  expansion. 

The  blower  having  now  completed  his  cylinder,  hands  it 
over  to  the  flattener  to  make  it  into  a  flat  sheet ;  to  accom- 
plish which,  two  furnaces  are  built  together,  the  one  for  flat- 
tening the  cylinders,  the  other  for  annealing  the  sheets,  the 
former  being  kept  at  a  much  higher  temperature  than  the 
latter.  The  cylinder  after  being  gradually  reheated,  is  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  flattening  furnace,  upon  a  smooth  stone, 
with  the  cracked  side  upward.  In  a  short  time  it  becomes 
softened  by  the  heat,  and  by  its  own  weight  falls  out  into  a  flat 
square  sheet  of  forty  inches  by  thirty.  The  flattener,  with 
a  piece  of  charred  wood,  rubs  it  quite  smooth,  and  then  pla- 
ces it  in  the  annealing  arch,  where  it  remains  about  three 
days  to  be  annealed.  A  workman  will  make  sixty  cylinders 
40  X  50  in  one  day ;  and  a  flattener  can  flatten  the  same 


214  Five  Black  Arts. 

number  in  the  same  time.  This  glass  can  be  made  of  any 
thickness  from  one-twentieth  to  half  an  inch. 

The  same  enterprising  companies  also  manufacture  exten- 
sively every  variety  of  colored  glass  used  by  the  glass-stainer, 
which  is  gathered,  rolled,  blown,  and  flattened,  in  a  similar  way 
with  the  sheet-glass,  the  pot-metal  being  gathered  from  one 
pot,  and  the  flashed  glass  from  two,  one  containing  colorless 
and  the  other  colored  metal,  which  being  blown  and  distend- 
ed together  are  combined,  while  each  portion  retains  its  individ- 
ual character.  These  oval  and  square  glass  shades  used  for 
covering  French  clocks  and  other  ornaments,  as  well  as  glass 
dishes  for  dairy  purposes,  are  also  made  by  these  parties  ;  and 
since  the  abolition  of  the  glass  duties  are  much  in  demand. 

There  is  another  species  of  glass  called  broad  or  common 
window-glass,  which  is  formed  of  the  coarsest  materials. 
The  ingredients  usually  employed  are,  six  measures  of  soap- 
boilers' waste,  three  of  kelp,  and  three  or  four  of  sand. 
After  these  have  been  fritted  for  from  twenty  to  thirty  hours, 
they  are  removed  while  red  hot  to  the  pots  in  the  working 
furnace,  where,  in  the  space  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hours, 
they  are  reduced  to  a  fluid  state.  The  metal  is  taken  out  in 
the  manner  already  described,  and  blown  into  globes  about  a 
foot  in  diameter.  A  piece  of  iron  dipped  in  cold  water  is 
run  along  them,  and  produces  a  crack  nearly  rectilinear  ;  and, 
while  yet  warm  and  ductile,  these  spheres  are  opened  out  and 
flattened  on  a  smooth  iron  plate  at  the  mouth  of  the  furnace. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  PLATE-GLASS. 

This  description  of  glass  may  be  manufactured  in  the  same 
manner  as  broad  window-glass,  or  by  casting  the  materials  in 
a  state  of  fusion  upon  a  flat  surface.  Little  correct  informa- 
tion has  been  published  relative  to  the  manufacture  of  plate- 
glass,  from  the  reluctance  of  proprietors  to  permit  their  works 
to  be  examined  by  individuals  who  are  capable  of  giving  an 
intelligible  account  of  them.  If  such  are  permitted  to  scan 
the  mysteries,  they  are  generally  restricted  to  keep  secret 
the  information  which  they  have  acquired.  The  late  Mr. 
Parks  the  chemist,  however,  seems  to  have  been  exempted  from 
this  condition,  and  after  having  visited  the  premises  of  the  Brit- 
ish Plate-Glass  Company,  at  Ravenhead,  in  Lancashire,  he 


Ip» 


Glass — Plate.  215 


published  a  short  account  of  the  process  as  there  carried  on. 
Besides  the  above  manufactory  in  Britain,  may  be  mentioned 
that  of  Messrs.  Swinburne  and  Company,  South  Shields, 
the  Thames  Plate-Glass  Company,  the  Union  Plate-Glass 
Company,  St.  Helen's ;  and  W.  A.  A.  West's,  Eccleston. 
Plate-glass  is  also  made  at  St.  Gobain  in  France,  besides 
other  places  upon  the  Continent. 

The  following  is  Loysel's  account  of  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  materials  used  at  St.  Gobain,  in  the  manufacture 
of  plate-glass:  White  sand,  100  parts;  carbonate  of  lime, 
12  ditto ;  soda,  45  to  48  ditto ;  fragments  of  glass  of  like 
quality,  100  ditto ;  oxide  of  manganese,  J.  The  following  pro- 
portions of  ingredients  are  said  to  produce  the  best  descrip- 
tion of  this  article  :  Lynn  sand  which  has  been  well  washed 
and  dried,  720  parts;  alkaline  salt  containing  40  per  cent, 
of  soda,  450  ditto ;  lime  slacked  and  sifted,  80  ditto ; 
niter,  25  ditto ;  broken  plate-glass,  425  ditto.  These  quan- 
tities produce  one  pot  of  metal,  which  yields  1200  pounds  of 
glass. 

Great  nicety  must  be  observed  in  conducting  the  processes 
of  this  manufacture.  The  materials  must  be  selected  with 
the  utmost  care.  The  sand  should  be  of  the  whitest  and  finest 
description,  and  well  washed  and  passed  through  a  sieve,  pre- 
viously to  being  mixed  with  the  other  ingredients.  Soda  is 
always  preferred  to  potash,  because  it  imparts  a  higher  de 
gree  of  fluidity  to  the  glass,  and  also  because  the  impurities 
which  it  contains  are  more  easily  dissipated  by  the  heat. 
Lime  acts  as  a  flux,  and  manganese  has  the  effect  of  giving  a 
slightly  reddish  hue  to  the  mixture  by  which  the  colors  of 
the  other  materials  are  neutralized,  so  that  scarcely  any  ap- 
preciable tint  remains.  Cobalt  is  likewise  used  in  some 
manufactories,  much  for  the  same  purpose  as  manganese. 
The  broken  glass  or  ciillet  as  it  is  technically  called,  is  those 
fragmentary  portions  which  are  cut  from  the  plates  when 
they  are  squared,  or  that  which  may  flow  over  in  the  process 
of  casting.  The  sand,  lime,. soda,  and  manganese,  being 
properly  mingled  in  the  proportions  above  given,  are  fritted 
in  small  furnaces,  where  the  temperature  is  gradually  raised 
to  a  red  or  white  heat,  and  there  maintained  until  no  more 
vapor  is  evolved,  nor  change  undergone  by  the  mixture. 
This  process  occupies  six  hours,  and  after  its  completion  the 


216  Five  Black  Arts. 

other  ingredients  are  added,  consisting  of  cullet  and  cobalt. 
At  St.  Gobain  there  are  two  kinds  of  crucibles  employed ; 
the  one  in  which  the  glass  is  nielted  is  called  a  pot^  and  has 
the  shape  of  an  inverted  truncated  cone  ;  the  other  is  entitled 
a  cuvette  ;  it  is  kept  empty  in  the  furnace,  and  exposed  to  the 
full  degree  of  heat.  Forty  hours  are  requisite  to  vitrify  the 
materials  properly,  and  bring  the  glass  to  a  fit  state  for  cast- 
ing. The  pots  are  skimmed  in  the  manner  already  described. 
When  the  liquid  mass  has  been  properly  refined,  the  cuvette  is 
filled  by  a  copper  ladle,  and  after  sufficient  time  is  allowed  for 
the  bubbles  created  by  this  disturbance  to  escape,  it  is  re- 
moved to  the  table  where  the  plates  are  cast.  Copper  was  the 
metal  of  which  tables  were  formerly  constructed ;  but  cast  iron 
has  now  been  found  to  answer  the  purpose  completely,  and  it 
is  greatly  superior  to  copper  in  this  respect,  that  it  remains 
uninjured  during  all  the  sudden  transitions  of  temperature  to 
which  it  must  be  subjected.  The  British  Plate-Glass  Com- 
pany were  the  first  to  introduce  this  improvement.  They 
procured  a  plate  fifteen  feet  long,  nine  feet  wide,  and  six 
inches  thick.  The  sides  are  provided  with  metallic  ribs,  the 
depth  being  exactly  the  measure  of  thickness  which  it  is  de- 
sired the  glass  should  be  of.  During  the  casting  there  is  a 
similar  rib  temporararily  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  table. 
The  cuvette  being  filled  with  melted  glass,  it  is  withdrawn  from 
the  furnace  by  means  of  a  crane,  taken  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
casting  table,  and  after  being  properly  scummed,  and  eleva- 
ted to  a  sufficient  height  by  means  of  a  crane,  it  is  emptied 
of  its  contents.  The  surface  of  the  melted  matter  is  then 
smoothed  by  means  of  a  large  hollow  copper  cylinder,  which 
extends  across  the  table,  resting  upon  the  side  ribs.  This  is 
set  in  motion,  and  rolled  over  the  glass,  by  which  process  it  is 
spread  out  into  a  sheet  of  uniform  breadth  and  thickness.  When 
the  plate  has  become  completely  hardened,  it  is  carefully  in- 
spected, to  see  that  no  flaws  or  bubbles  appear  on  the  surface. 
Should  any  be  found,  the  sheet  is  immediately  divided  by 
cutting  through  them.  It  is  afterward  removed  to  the  an- 
nealing oven,  where  it  is  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  and 
remains  for  about  fifteen  days.  When  glass  is  in  a  high 
state  of  fluidity  it  is  liable  to  be  injured  even  by  a  draught 
of  air,  so  that  the  apartment  must  be  kept  as  free  as  possible 
from  disturbance.     The  opening  or  shutting  of  a  door,  by 


GLASS.  ] 


[  PLA.TK   2. 


Glass — Plate.  217 

setting  the  air  in  motion,  might  impair  the  value  of  the  plate. 
After  having  been  withdrawn  from  the  annealing  oven,  they 
have  to  undergo  the  operations  of  squaring,  grinding,  polish- 
ing, and  silvering,  before  they  are  fit  for  the  market.  These 
processes  have  thus  been  described  by  a  late  writer  upon  the 
subject  : 

"  The  first  process — that  of  squaring  and  smoothing  the 
edges — is  performed  by  passing  a  rough  diamond  along  the 
surface  of  the  glass,  guided  by  a  square  rule  ;  the  diamond 
cuts  to  a  certain  depth  into  the  substance,  when,  by  gently  strik- 
ing the  glass  with  a  small  hammer  underneath  the  part 
which  is  cut,  the  piece  comes  away ;  and  the  roughnesses  of 
the  edge  then  left  are  removed  by  pincers.  The  plate  is  then 
taken  to  the  grinding  apartment. 

"  The  next  step  is  to  imbed  each  of  the  plates  upon  a  table 
or  frame  adjusted  horizontally,  and  made  of  either  freestone 
or  wood,  cementing  the  glass  securely  thereto  by  plaster  of 
Paris.  One  plate  being  then  reversed  and  suspended  over 
another,  the  material  employed  in  grinding  their  surfaces  is 
introduced  between  the  two,  and  they  are  made  to  rub  stead- 
ily and  evenly  upon  each  other  by  means  of  machinery  set  in 
motion  by  a  steam-engine."  River  sand  and  water  were  for- 
merly used  for  the  purpose  of  abraiding  the  surface,  but 
ground  flint  is  now  substituted,  as  answering  the  purpose  bet- 
ter. When  one  side  of  each  plate  has  been  sufficiently 
ground,  it  is  loosened  from  the  frame,  and  turned  over,  so  as 
to  present  the  other  surface  to  be  ground  in  the  same  manner. 
Some  degree  of  pressure  is  employed,  by  loading  the  upper 
plate  with  weights,  as  the  grinding  of  each  side  approaches 
completion.  The  process  thus  described  used  formerly  to  last 
during  three  entire  days,  but  this  time  is  now  much  abridged. 
The  greatest  attention  is  required  in  order  to  finish  with  the 
surfaces  perfectly  level  and  parallel,  for  which  end  a  rule 
and  plumb-line  are  employed. 

By  means  of  this  grinding,  the  plates  will  have  been  made 
level ;  but  they  are  too  rough  to  receive  a  polish.  To  fit 
them  for  this,  they  must  again  be  ground  with  emery  powder 
of  increasing  degrees  of  fineness.  The  preparation  and  sort- 
ing of  this  powder  are  effected  in  the  following  simple  and 
ingenious  manner  :  "  A  considerable  quantity  of  emery  is 
put  into  a  vessel  containing  water,  and  is  stirred  about  violent- 


218  Five  Black  Arts. 

ly  until  the  whole  is  mechanically  mixed  with  the  water. 
Emery  is  absolutely  insoluble  by  such  means  ;  and  if  the  mix- 
ture were  left  at  rest  daring  a  sufficient  time,  the  whole 
would  subside  in  layers ;  the  coarsest  and  heaviest  particles 
sinking  first,  and  so  on  successively,  until  the  very  finest  par- 
ticles would  range  themselves  as  the  upper  stratum.  Previ- 
ously to  this,  however,  and  while  these  finest  grains  are  still 
suspended  in  the  water,  it  is  poured  ofi"  into  a  separate  ves- 
sel, and  the  emery  is  there  allowed  to  settle.  A  fresh  supply 
of  water  is  poured  into  the  first  vessel,  the  contents  of  which 
are  again  violently  agitated,  and  allowed  partially  to  subside 
as  before.  A  shorter  interval  is  allowed  for  this  than  in  the 
first  case  ;  and  then  the  liquor  is  poured  off  into  a  third  vessel, 
by  which  means  emery  of  the  second  degree  of  fineness  is 
separated.  This  operation  is  repeated  in  order  to  obtain  pow- 
ders having  five  different  degrees  of  fineness.  The  deposits 
are  then  separately  dried  upon  a  stove  to  a  consistence  proper 
for  making  them  up  into  small  balls,  in  which  form  they  are 
delivered  to  the  workmen. 

"  In  this  further  rubbing  together,  or,  as  it  is  called,  smooth- 
ing of  the  glass  plates,  it  must  be  understood  that  the  coarsest 
emery  is  first  used,  and  so  on,  substituting  powders  having 
increasing  degrees  of  fineness  as  the  work  proceeds."  * 

These  processes  finished,  the  glass,  although  perfectly  even, 
appears  opaque  or  deadened  on  the  surface,  and  requires  pol- 
ishing. This  is  effected  in  the  following  manner :  A  piece 
of  wood  is  covered  with  numerous  folds  of  woolen  cloth,  ihe^ 
layers  being  divided  by  some  carded  wool  interposed  between 
each,  the  whole  forming  a  tolerably  hard  but  elastic  cushion, 
which  is  furnished  with  a  handle.  The  plate  is  laid  upon  a 
bed  of  plaster,  as  already  described,  and  the  cushion  being 
wetted,  is  covered  with  the  red  oxide  of  iron  (the  colco- 
ihar  of  commerce),  and  moved  backward  and  forward  upon 
the  surface  of  the  plate.  Lastly,  if  the  glass  be  intended  for 
mirrors,  it  is  silvered,  that  is,  covered  on  one  side  with  a  thin 
coating  of  amalgam  of  tin  and  mercury. 

The  process  of  bloiviyig  plate-glass  differs  so  slightlj'  from 
the  methods  used  in  producing  broad  glass,  that  they  need 
not  be  here  repeated.     Any  difference  that  does  exist,  arises 

*  Glass  Manufacture,  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cydopcedia,  No.  26. 


Glass — Stained  or  Painted.  219 

from  the  great  bulk  and  weight  of  the  mass  of  glass  operated 
upon. 

STAINED  OR  PAINTED  GLASS. 

In  an  age  like  the  present,  when  a  high  state  of  civiliza- 
tion and  refinement  demands  the  most  careful  and  diligent 
cultivation  of  those  arts  which  minister  to  the  gratification 
of  refined  taste,  Glass  Painting,  as  an  art  now  acknowledged 
indispensable  in  the  decoration  of  our  churches,  palaces,  etc., 
has  assumed  an  importance  not  attained  at  any  former  period  ; 
and  from  its  progress  in  connection  with  our  present  advances 
in  artistic  knowledge,  we  may  safely  infer,  that  if  the  noble 
elements  in  its  nature  and  capabiUties  be  fairly  and  legiti- 
mately applied,  it  will  become  the  most  potent  agent  in  ad- 
vancing the  standard  of  architectural  decoration.  Within  these 
few  years  in  our  own  country,  its  progress  has  been  altogether 
wonderful.  Since  the  abolition  of  the  duties  on  glass,  Britain 
has  produced  the  rarest  and  the  richest  colored  glass  in  end- 
less profusion  and  variety.  Light  has  been  admitted  into 
gorgeous  apartments  through  domes  filled  with  colored  glass 
of  colossal  dimensions,  the  decorations  of  which,  worked  out 
from  the  designs  of  the  architects,  enhance  and  give  power 
to  the  other  ornamentation  of  the  interiors,  and  produce  a 
coup-d'oeil  not  previously  known  nor  dreamt  of.  Stained 
glass  windows  for  churches  have  been,  and  are  being  executed 
in  Britain,  which,  for  appropriate  design,  brilliant  color,  sub- 
dued tone,  symmetrical  proportion,  minute  manipulation,  and 
variety  of  carefully  considered  detail,  stand  comparison  with 
the  best  existing  specimens  of  mediaeval  times.  Windows 
for  palatial  and  baronial  structures  have  also  been  recently 
produced  in  this  country,  whereon  are  traced  in  imperishable 
lines,  and  blazoned  in  unfading  colors,  correct  effigies  of  his- 
torical personages,  representations  of  historical  events,  genea- 
logical arrangements  of  heraldic  bearings,  and  other  legends 
and  memorials,  which  will  convey  to  distant  times  a  favorable 
idea  of  the  state  of  British  art  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
earliest  record  which  we  possess  concerning  the  existence  of 
this  beautiful  art  is  of  the  age  of  Pope  Leo  III.,  that  is,  about 
the  year  800,  a  period  in  which  many  of  the  most  magnificent 
ecclesiastical  edifices  on  the  Continent  were  erected.     It  is 


220  .  Five  Black  Arts. 

not  known  with  certainty  when  stained  glass  was  made  use  of 
for  pictorial  or  figure  subjects,  but  the  historian  of  a  monas- 
tery at  Dijon,  writing  in  the  eleventh  century,  says,  that  there 
existed  in  his  time  in  the  church  of  his  monastery  some  very 
ancient  glass  representing  the  mystery  of  the  Holy  Euchar- 
ist, and  that  this  glass  picture  had  been  taken  from  the  old 
church  previous  to  its  restoration.  The  earliest  specimens  of 
stained  glass  are  composed  of  small  pieces  of  glass,  imbued 
throughout  with  color,  united  by  grooved  leaden  joinings.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  this  arose  from  the  glass-makers  of 
that  period  not  being  able  to  make  it  in  larger  pieces.  If  so, 
in  so  far  as  sparkling  brilliancy  in  glass  decorations  is  a  de- 
sideratum, it  might  almost  have  been  as  well  for  the  art  that 
the  manufacturers  of  the  colored  metals  had  still  been  in  the 
same  position.  Brilliancy  is  always  increased  in  the  same 
ratio  with  the  number  of  pieces  of  glass  in  the  composition. 

Nothing  could  be  more  instructive  or  interesting  than  an 
investigation  of  the  relative  merits  of  the  existing  specimens 
of  the  art  during  the  six  centuries  it  was  so  dihgently  and 
effectively  cultivated  in  connection  with  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture ;  but  this  inquiry  would  be  too  extensive  to  be  opened 
up  here.  The  following  remarks,  therefore,  are  confined  to 
a  few  of  the  leading  points  in  the  glass  of  the  various  styles 
which  prevailed  in  succession  from  the  eleventh  to  the  seven- 
teenth century,  in  which  may  be  traced  very  clearly  the  prog- 
ress of  the  architects,  under  whom  the  glass  painters  worked, 
from  clumsy  and  servile  imitators  to  bold  and  original  designers. 

The  Norman  style,  in  its  early  period,  was  a  direct  though 
imperfect  imitation  of  Roman  architecture  ;  but  when  pointed 
architecture  had  attained  its  greatest  perfection,  its  chief 
feature  was  originality.  During  the  gradual  development  of 
this,  its  peculiar  characteristic,  the  openings  in  the  walls  by 
degrees  were  enlarged,  until  they  ultimately  became  the  prin- 
cipal points,  and  it  was  requisite  that  they  should  be  ju- 
diciously decorated  ;  and  in  no  branch  of  art  connected  with 
pointed  architcture  can  its  onward  movement  be  more  clearly 
traced  than  in  the  painted  glass  windows. 

The  painted  glass  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries, 
like  the  Norman  architecture  of  which  it  formed  a  part,  was 
stately  and  of  a  magnificent  character.  The  colors  were  of 
the  most  vivid  and  most  positive  description.      There  was  no 


Glass — Stained  or  Painted.  221 

spot  left  for  the  eye  to  repose  on  ;  no  neutral  tints  nor  sec- 
ondary colors  "were  introduced.  The  whole  of  the  ground 
and  foliage  were  filled  with  intense  color,  ruby  and  blue  inva- 
riably preponderating.  The  same  love  of  violent  and  striking 
contrast  as  is  peculiar  to  man  in  a  state  of  semi-barbarism 
was  manifested  in  the  coloring  of  the  windows  of  that  period, 
and  the  general  effect  must  have  been  congenial  to  the  ro- 
mantic and  martial  spirit  of  the  age  of  chivalry.  The  leading 
forms  were  massive  and  simple,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  circle 
and  square,  filled  up  chiefly  with  clumsy  imitations  of  the  fo- 
liated ornament  to  be  found  in  Roman  architecture.  When 
figures  were  introduced,  they  were  like  those  in  the  Bayeux 
tapestry,  marvelously  correct  in  costume,  though  dispropor- 
tionate in  drawing,  and  filled  up  with  strong  positive  colors, 
flat,  and  the  outline  defined  chiefly  by  the  strong  thick  lines 
of  the  lead,  resembling  those  highly  titled  personages  repre- 
sented on  packs  of  cards,  or  those  in  Chinese  processions,  as 
delineated  by  the  native  artists  of  the  Celestial  empire. 

In  the  thirteenth  century,  the  painted  glass,  like  the  pri- 
mary pointed  or  early  English  architecture  of  which  it  formed 
a  part,  was  of  a  light  and  elegant  character.  The  glass 
painter  had  then  acquired  a  more  correct  idea  of  what  con- 
stituted beauty,  both  in  form  and  color.  The  positive  colors 
were  now  used  more  sparingly,  and  indeed  were  almost 
confined  to  geometric  bands,  central  points,  and  borders  con- 
tinued round  each  entire  light.  The  general  grounds  were 
of  a  beautiful  tint  of  neutral  gray,  produced  by  lines  inter- 
sected at  right  angles,  from  which  were  relieved  by  bold  lines 
scrolls  of  foliated  ornament  in  clear  colorless  glass.  The 
glass  in  the  Sister  windows  of  York  Minster  may  be  named 
as  one  of  the  finest  existing  specimens  of  this  description. 
Figures  and  subjects  also,  when  introduced,  were  better  drawn 
than  formerly.  The  faces  were  kept  colorless,  slightly  shaded 
with  brown  of  a  rough  gritty  texture.  The  secondary  colors 
were  used  in  the  draperies  with  a  most  delicious  effect,  soft- 
ening and  harmonizing  the  whole  composition,  and  giving  a 
lightness  and  variety  previously  unknown.  In  the  leading 
forms  of  the  ornamental  portions  also  were  seen  repeated  the 
geometric  features  of  the  building ;  and  in  the  glass  of  the 
period  we  can  recognize  repetitions  of  the  ground  plans  of 
the  shafts,  with  the  enrichments  on  the  laps  and  on  the  mould- 


222  Five  Black  Arts. 

ings  of  the  -windows  and  doorways.  In  the  foliaged  back- 
grounds, amid  repetitions  of  the  ancient  Roman  foliage,  we 
now  and  then  get  fragments  of  simple  foliage,  such  as  trefoils, 
evidently  taken  from  nature ;  and  we  are  able  to  trace  in 
progress  an  art  which  was  shortly  to  become  as  original  as 
beautiful,  and  dependent  entirely  on  the  artist's  knowledge 
and  appreciation  of  nature  and  geometry. 

During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  when  the 
secondary  pointed  or  decorated  style  of  architecture  gradually 
developed  its  immense  resources,  and  advanced  steadily  toward 
perfection,  we  find  that  the  glass  advanced  in  the  same  ratio 
as  the  art  with  which  it  was  associated.  In  accordance  with 
certain  fixed  rules  of  proportion,  the  glass  artists  elongated, 
intersected,  diversified,  and  arranged  rectangular,  triangular, 
and  curvilinear  figures,  and  made  these  harmonious  combina- 
tions their  leading  points  for  color.  They  were  thus  enabled 
with  certainty  to  produce  a  pleasing  effect,  and  to  fill  up  the 
detail  according  to  their  own  fancy,  with  an  imitation  of  the 
common  weeds,  flowers,  and  plants  that  they  found  growing 
around  them.  This  principle  was  carried  out  in  every  por- 
tion of  the  detail  in  the  remarkable  structures  then  erected ; 
and  the  exquisite  imitations  of  vegetables  and  plants  on  the 
carving  of  the  caps,  friezes,  and  mouldings,  show  the  extra- 
ordinary love  of  nature  which  must  have  animated  these  fra- 
ternities of  artistic  minds  by  whom  these  details  were  worked 
out.  The  monks  of  Melrose  made  "  gude  kail,"  says  the  old 
song,  and  from  the  exquisite  manner  in  which  that  vegetable 
has  been  carved  on  some  of  the  portions  of  that  fine  old  abbey, 
one  would  conclude  that  the  carvers  must  have  shared  largely 
and  appreciated  highly  the  "  gude  kail "  of  the  holy  brother- 
hood, a  feeling  no  doubt  also  entertained  by  the  glass  painters 
of  the  structure  whose  works  would  doubtless  exhibit  similar 
genius  with  the  glass  of  that  period,  which  was  well  charac- 
terized by  a  rich  juicy  natural  freshness,  as  well  as  an  easy 
play  of  elegant  outline  and  graceful  proportion.  In  many  in- 
stances also,  the  gray  background  produced  by  intersected  lines 
was  abandoned,  and  a  tint  of  rough  gray  obscure  subtituted, 
which  imparted  to  the  whole  a  softer  effect,  and  gave  a  better 
relief  to  the  outlined  foliage  of  which  the  diapering  was  com- 
posed. At  this  period  also,  glass  painting  had  attracted  art- 
ists of  high  genius,  and  the  figures  and  subjects  in  the  glass 


Glass — Stained  or  Painted.  223 

of  the  period  are  perfect  specimens  of  what  the  art  ought  to 
be.  These  artists  tested  its  capabilities,  and  how  well  and 
thoroughly  they  did  so  may  be  seen  in  Cologne  Cathedral, 
where  the  flowing,  bold,  and  elegant  outline,  the  rough  semi- 
transparent  texture,  the  calm  expressive  countenances  and 
attitudes  of  the  figures  of  Durer  and  his  cotemporaries,  fairly 
set  aside  and  overpower  the  glowing,  brilliant,  but  frowsy 
specimens  there  of  modern  German  art,  as  practiced  in  Mu- 
nich, under  the  auspices  of  the  Bavarian  government.  Per- 
haps, also,  the  ornamental  glass  of  the  period  in  that  structure 
will  be  found  equal  to  any  in  the  world  for  geometrical  sym- 
metry and  natural  foliage,  the  latter  imitated  from  the  com- 
mon weeds  and  plants  indigenous  to  the  locality.  So  fasci- 
nating and  far-famed  were  the  painted  glass  windows  of  that 
period,  so  novel  were  the  effects  produced  by  the  rich  semi- 
transparent  shadows  and  reflected  lights,  that  Mr.  Eastlake 
conjectures  that  the  increase  of  color  in  shade  which  is  so 
remarkable  in  the  Venetian  and  early  Flemish  pictures  may 
have  been  suggested  by  the  slight  shading  on  the  stained 
glass  through  which  it  was  transmitted.  Over  the  Lady 
Chapel  in  the  north  aisle  of  York  Minster  are  two  windows 
of  this  period  remarkable  for  the  brilliaiicy  and  quiet  feeling 
formerly  alluded  to  as  indispensable  in  glass  painting  of  a 
high  character. 

After  the  decorated  period  painted  glass  degenerated  first 
into  the  flat,  tame  insipidity  of  the  perpendicular  style,  and 
then  ran  riot  in  the  extravagant  tortuosities  and  monstrosities 
of  the  capped,  jeweled  and  double  gilt  details  of  Elizabeth- 
an architecture,  which  it  seems  a  fallacy  to  suppose  was 
imported  from  Italy.  At  the  time  of  its  introduction  a  strong 
tide  of  feeling  had  set  in  against  every  thing  that  pertained 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and  it  seems  unlikely  that 
after  having  diverged  from  the  style  with  which  that  religion 
had  so  long  been  identified,  the  nation  should  have  imported 
any  thing  from  Italy,  its  headquarters  and  chief  stronghold. 
It  rather  seems  probable  that  at  a  time  when  attempts  were 
made  to  get  quit  of  every  existing  form  and  style  of  archi- 
tectural decoration,  there  would  be  awakened  a  strong  desire 
for  novelty ;  and  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  newly  dis- 
covered continent  of  America  was  visited  by  crowds  of  ad- 
venturers, it  will  not   appear  unlikely  that  many  of  these 


224  Five  Black  Arts. 

adventurers  must  have  been  delighted  and  dazzled  with  the 
magnificent  and  unique  architectural  structures  which  adorned 
the  ancient  cities  of  Central  America,  and  may  have  imported 
home  and  introduced  into  English  architecture  many  of  the 
features  which  we  are  accustomed  to  believe  were  originated 
in  the  Elizabethan  era.  The  painted  glass  of  that  period 
partakes  of  the  same  character;  and  in  Du  Paix's  great 
work  on  New  Spain  will  be  found  something  very  like  the 
origin  of  many  of  these  peculiarities,  eccentricities,  and  het- 
erogeneous conglomerations  which  characterize  the  wood  and 
stone  carving,  as  well  as  the  wall  and  window  decorations  of 
that  extraordinary  style  of  architecture. 

From  this  rapid  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  rise  and  de- 
cadence of  painted  glass,  it  appears  that  there  is  no  limit  to 
its  capabilities ;  and  that  forming,  as  it  does,  a  leading  ar- 
chitectural decoration,  it  is  as  well  adapted  to  one  style  as 
another.  If  the  principles  of  harmonious  coloring  and  sym- 
metrical proportion  be  carefully  attended  to,  as  was  the  case 
in  the  best  specimens  of  the  art  in  the  mediaeval  period, 
painted  glass  must  ever  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  at- 
tractive decorations  for  church  or  mansion.  It  is  no  doubt 
a  species  of  mosaic,  and  the  artist  must  generally  depend  on 
harmonious  combinations  of  color  and  continuity  and  firmness 
of  outline  for  the  effect  he  intends  to  produce,  as  the  brilliant 
coloring  and  mosaic  character  are  lost  in  the  same  ratio  as 
shading  is  introduced. 

It  is  also  true  that  windows  are  generally  intended  for  the 
transmission  of  light,  and  that  in  some  cases  the  sacrifice  of 
light  required  for  pictorial  effect  cannot  be  made.  Yet  who 
can  resist  the  attractions  of  such  pictorial  glass  as  is  to  be 
found  in  the  windows  of  St.  Gudule  at  Brussels,  or  St.  Jans 
Kirk  at  Gouda,  where  the  principles  of  chiaro-oscuro  and  per- 
spective are  fully  developed,  where  foreground  and  distance 
hold  their  proper  places,  and  where  the  lights  and  brilUant 
colors  are  arranged  in  a  manner  to  rival  the  best  specimens 
of  the  ancient  masters  of  painting  in  oil.  This  mode  of  treat- 
ment is  not  to  be  advocated  for  general  use,  but  where  there 
is  light  enough  and  to  spare,  and  where  men  of  high  artistic 
powers  apply  themselves  to  glass  painting,  they  may  safely 
be  left  to  their  own  genius,  and  allowed  to  render  their  con- 
ceptions as  yividly  and  perfectly  in  glass  as  others  do  on  can- 


GLASS.  ] 


[  Plate  3. 


Glass — Stained  or  Painted.  225 

vas.  The  dull,  heavy,  uniform  opacity  which  pervaded  the 
glass  of  the  last  century,  when  it  was  made  up  in  squares, 
the  colors  fused,  and  the  whole  work  looked  like  cloth  trans- 
parencies, is  not  to  be  tolerated.  The  brightest  colors  that 
can  be  produced  in  pot  metals  joined  in  the  ancient  way  by 
leading  ought  always  to  be  used ;  and  although  in  general 
the  effect  of  mosaics  in  low  relief  may  be  preferable,  yet  the 
shading  and  toning  requisite  to  give  full  effect  to  a  good  pic- 
torial design  may  be  given  without  detracting  greatly  from 
the  light. 

Glass  is  the  most  enduring  species  of  artistic  medium,  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  quality  will  yet  cause  eminent 
artists  to  leave  the  impress  of  their  genius  on  painted  windows. 
Had  the  art  of  painting  on  glass  been  known  in  the  age  of 
Phidias,  we  might  have  had  preserved,  in  colors  as  vivid  as 
when  the  works  were  executed,  the  Jupiter  of  Homer  by 
Apelles,  the  pictorial  embodiment  of  the  Athenian  character 
by  Parrhasius.  A  singular  fact  illustrative  of  the  durability 
of  painted  glass  may  here  be  stated  in  connection  with  York 
Minster.  When  the  nave  of  that  fine  structure  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  the  heat  was  so  intense  that  many  of  the 
stones  were  calcined.  When  the  leaden  framing  of  the 
windows  melted,  the  glass  made  of  many  small  pieces  fell 
down  undamaged,  and  was  afterward  carefully  rebuilt  in  new 
leading  and  fixed  in  its  original  place,  where  it  now  remains 
the  most  fragile  yet  the  most  enduring  portion  of  the  ancient 
structure. 

In  ornamental  painted  glass  the  positive  colors  ought  gen- 
erally to  be  used  sparingly,  and  confined  to  the  chief  points  in 
the  composition.  When  overloaded  with  color,  the  sparkling 
brilliancy  so  desirable  in  painted  glass  is  entirely  lost.  The 
general  ground  of  the  window  should  be  of  a  neutral  tint 
suitable  in  tone  to  its  character  and  situation.  In  a  southern 
aspect  this  tone  should  be  of  a  cool  gray,  and  the  positive 
colors,  blue,  green,  and  purple,  ought  to  predominate  over 
ruby,  yellow,  and  orange.  In  a  northern  aspect  the  general 
ground  should  be  of  a  warm  sunny  tint,  and  the  warm  ought 
to  predominate  over  the  cold  colors.  An  eastern  window 
ought  to  approximate  in  color  to  a  northern,  a  western  to  a 
south  window. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  have  a  combination  of  straight 

15 


226  Five  Black  Arts. 

and  curved  lines  in  the  leading  forms  of  painted  glass.  As 
in  the  human  body,  the  effect  of  the  elliptic  curvature  of  the 
muscles  is  enhanced  by  the  angular  position  of  the  straight 
lines  on  which  they  are  placed,  or  by  the  sharp  square  indi- 
cations of  the  bony  extremities,  in  like  manner  the  curvilineal 
lines  in  ornamental  decorations  appear  to  more  advantage 
when  balanced  by  a  harmonious  proportion  of  straight  lines. 
A  very  important  feature  in  glass  is  diapered  work  in  the 
backgrounds,  a  great  variety  of  designs  for  which  may  be 
obtained  from  plants  and  flowers  by  the  wayside,  in  the  field, 
or  the  garden  ;  and  the  more  homely  these  are,  they  are  often 
the  more  suggestive  and  pleasing.  Borderings  are  almost 
indispensable  in  all  ornamental  painted-glass  windows.  They 
bind  together  what  might  otherwise  be  disjointed  and  scat- 
tered, and  afford  scope  for  endless  variety  of  design,  both  in 
form  and  color.  Heraldic  symbols  and  emblazonments  have 
always  been  amongst  the  most  attractive  features  in  stained- 
glass  windows.  The  points  which  most  shields  form  for  a 
balance  of  positive  color  ;  the  crests,  mantling,  supporters, 
and  mottoes,  twisting  or  twining  either  quaintly  or  gracefully 
through  the  composition,  not  to  speak  of  the  interesting  nature 
of  heraldry  as  a  guide  through  the  intricate  mazes  of  family 
connection,  wending  through  the  depths  of  ages — all  tend  to 
render  it  the  most  admirable  field  on  which  the  glass  painter 
can  be  engaged.  For  hall  or  library  windows  such  devices 
are  very  appropriate,  and  indeed  so  highly  are  they  appre- 
ciated, and  so  much  is  painted  glass  now  coming  into  repute, 
that  there  is  scarcely  a  new  house  of  any  pretensions  without 
its  library  or  staircase  stained-glass  window.  In  towns  where 
back  drawing-room  windows  look  into  mean  or  filthy  lanes, 
what  a  delightful  remedy  is  found  in  light  sparkling  stained 
glass.  Either  heraldic  blazon,  family  monograms,  or  orna- 
mental devices,  may  be  used  ;  and  if  the  inner  window  be 
fitted  up  flush  with  the  inner  wall,  and  the  room  lighted  at 
night  mainly  from  lights  placed  between  the  outer  and  inner 
windows,  the  effect  is  chaste  and  beautiful. 

Restorations  of  windows  connected  with  ancient  edifices 
afford  fine  media  for  embodying  local  legends  or  historical 
local  incidents.  In  new  structures  for  public  purposes  what 
place  RO  fitting  or  so  striking  as  the  windows  for  represen- 
tations of  men  eminent  in  connection  with  such  institutions. 


Glass — Stained  or  Painted.  227 

Monumental  windows  have  recently  been  introduced  into 
churches  with  excellent  effect,  and  they  afford  scope  for  in- 
vention as  various  as  the  characters  of  those  whose  virtues 
they  are  designed  to  commemorate.  In  churches  even  in 
Scotland  stained  glass  is  rapidly  assuming  its  ancient  impor- 
tance, and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  will  ultimately  be 
so  much  encouraged  and  cultivated  that  the  windows  of  our 
pubhc  edifices  will  be  the  honored  medium  of  transmitting  to 
remote  posterity  the  works  of  the  master-minds  of  British 
art. 

Except  in  the  name,  painting  on  glass  has  no  resemblance 
to  any  other  department  of  the  pictorial  art  but  that  of  por- 
celain. Both  the  colors,  and  the  process  of  their  application 
throughout,  are  entirely  diflferent.  Where  animal  and  vege- 
table substances  are  freely  used  as  coloring  matter  in  every 
other  department  of  pictorial  art,  they  are  wholly  excluded 
in  that  of  glass  painting,  where  all  the  pigments  used  are 
subjected,  after  being  laid  on,  to  the  operation  of  fire,  to 
make  them  penetrate  the  body  of  the  glass,  or  become  fused 
on  its  surface — a  process  which  would  wholly  destroy  the 
coloring  properties  of  such  substances.  All  the  colors  em- 
ployed in  glass  painting  and  staining  are  oxides  of  metals  or 
minerals,  as  gold,  silver,  cobalt,  which  not  only  stand  the  fire, 
but  require  the  powerful  interference  of  that  agent  to  bring 
out  their  brilliancy  and  transparency.  Some  colors,  on  the 
application  of  heat,  penetrate  the  body  of  the  glass,  and  from 
this  circumstance,  are  called  stains  ;  while  others,  being 
mixed  with  a  vitreous  substance  called  flux,  become  fused  or 
vitrified  on  the  surface.  The  former  produces  a  variety  of 
colors,  and  all  of  them  are  perfectly  transparent.  The  pro- 
duce of  the  latter  are  only  semi-transparent,  but  they  may  be 
made  to  yield  any  color  or  tint  required. 

In  preparing  these  colors,  the  most  important  point  to  be 
attended  to  is,  to  have  all  those  that  are  to  be  used  at  the 
same  time  of  an  equal  degree  of  softness.  To  attain  this, 
those  that  are  hard,  and  require  a  great  degree  of  heat  to 
make  them  effective,  must  be  fixed  first ;  leaving  the  soft 
colors,  for  which  a  slight  heat  only  is  necessary,  to  the  last. 
If  used  promiscuously,  and  without  regard  to  this  precaution, 
some  of  the  colors  would  be  rendered  too  fluid,  while  others 


228  Five  Black  Arts. 

would  be  insufficiently  fused,  and  the  work  in  consequence 
spoiled. 

GLAZING  OF  WINDOWS. 

Putty,  an  important  and  indispensable  article  in  the  gla- 
zier's trade,  is  composed  of  whiting  and  linseed  oil.  Chalk 
is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  former,  but  the  expense  and 
labor  incurred  in  preparing  it  is  much  greater,  and  besides 
it  generally  contains  sand,  so  that  it  is  no  object  to  the  glazier 
to  employ  it.  Whiting  is  in  every  way  to  be  preferred ;  it 
must  be  thoroughly  dried  before  the  oil  is  added  to  it,  other- 
wise the  union  will  not  be  effected,  or  at  least  it  will  be  very 
imperfect. 

After  the  whiting  has  been  thoroughly  dried  and  prepared, 
it  ought  to  be  passed  through  a  very  fine  sieve,  and  all  the 
remaining  lumps  and  knots  pulverized,  and  then  also  passed 
through  the  sieve.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the 
whiting  free  of  sand  and  other  extraneous  substances. 

When  putty  is  to  be  made,  put  the  proper  quantity  of  oil 
into  a  tub  or  other  open  vessel,  and  gradually  add  the  whiting 
whilst  yet  in  a  hot  state,  at  the  same  time  keeping  the  w^hole 
in  motion  with  a  stick,  until  it  becomes  of  a  sufficient  con- 
sistency to  admit  of  being  wrought  by  the  hand  on  a  board 
or  table.  Having  been  removed  thither  from  the  tub,  it 
must  be  wrought  up  with  dry  whiting,  until  it  is  converted 
into  a  compact  mass.  When  brought  to  this  state,  it  ought 
to  be  put  into  a  hollowed  stone  or  mortar,  and  beat  with  a 
wooden  mallet  till  it  becomes  soft  and  tenacious,  when  more 
whiting  must  be  added,  until  it  has  attained  a  proper  con- 
sistency. 

When  putty  is  required  of  a  superior  degree  of  fineness, 
and  which  will  also  dry  quickly,  add  a  little  sugar  of  lead  or 
litharge ;  and  if  an  increase  of  strength  be  wanted,  a  httle 
white  lead. 

When  the  panes  have  been  fitted  into  the  checks  of  the 
sashes,  they  must  be  removed,  and  the  checks  well  bedded 
with  beat  putty.  This  done,  the  panes  are  again  returned  to 
their  places,  and  gently  pressed  or  lodged  in  the  bedding, 
the  workman,  as  it  were,  humoring  the  glass  should  it  be 
bent  or  twisted,  and  taking  care  that  there  is  no  hard  ex- 


Glass — Glazing  of  Windows.  229 

traneous  substance  mingled  with  the  putty,  which  might  en- 
danger, if  not  actually  break  the  glass.  When  a  pane  is 
perfectly  bedded  it  lies  quite  firm,  and  does  not  spring  from 
the  putty  ;  but  when,  either  from  a  perverse  bend  or  twist  in 
the  glass,  or  any  other  accidental  cause,  it  happens  that  it 
cannot  be  made  to  go  quite  close  to  the  check,  the  vacant 
space  must  be  carefully  and  neatly  filled  upon  the  back  putty- 
ing, otherwise  the  window  will  not  be  impervious  to  the 
weather,  and  will  be  very  apt  to  fall  into  decay  by  the  ad- 
mission of  moisture. 

The  convex  or  round  side  of  the  pane,  where  such  a  shape 
occurs,  should  be  presented  to  the  outside,  and  the  concave 
or  hollow  to  the  inside.  When  thus  placed,  they  resist  the 
weather  better  than  if  the  hollow  sides  were  exposed  to  it. 

After  the  pane  has  been  bedded,  the  next  process  is  the 
outside  puttying.  This  putty  should  be  kept  in  the  fore  check, 
about  the  thirty-second  part  of  an  inch  below  the  level 
of  the  inside  check,  so  as  to  allow  the  thin  layer  of  paint 
which  binds  these  two  substances  together  to  join  the  putty 
and  glass ;  and  that  it  may  not  offend  the  eye  by  being  seen 
from  the  inside ;  and  that,  when  it  is  painted,  the  brush  may 
not  encroach  on  any  visible  part  of  the  pane,  leaving  those 
ragged  lines  or  marks  which  arc  so  often  seen  from  the  inside 
on  ill-finished  windows,  and  which  are  so  displeasing  to  the 
eye.  This  operation,  and  finishing  the  corners,  are  two  nice 
points  in  the  art,  and  therefore,  when  properly  done,  discover 
the  neat-handed  and  skillful  workman. 

All  frames  or  sashes  of  windows  ought,  before  being  glazed, 
to  receive  one  or  two  coats  of  white  paint,  to  which  a  small 
portion  of  red  lead  has  been  added  to  facilitate  its  drying, 
and  to  give  increased  strength  and  durability  to  the  paint. 

Lattice  or  Lead  Wmdows. — This  antique  and  singularly 
beautiful  style  of  glazing  has  unaccountably  fallen  much  into 
disuse,  although  of  late  years  it  has  certainly  undergone 
something  like  a  resuscitation,  in  consequence  of  a  revival  of 
the  public  taste  for  stained  glass,  and  a  growing  predilection 
for  Medioeval  architecture  in  churches,  cottages,  and  the  like. 
For  these,  and  for  staircase  windows,  and  indeed  all  windows 
similarly  situated,  as  in  halls,  lobbies,  or  the  like,  it  is  par- 
ticularly adapted. 

It  may  be  proper  to  premise,  that  lead  windows  require 


230  Five  Black  Arts. 

stained  or  colored  glass  for  producing  their  fullest  and  best 
effects,  and  it  was  with  stained  glass  only  that  they,  were 
originally  constructed  ;  but  very  neat  and  elegant  windows 
are  executed  in  this  style  with  plain  glass,  where  variety  and 
beauty  of  figure  are  made  to  compensate  in  some  measure  for 
the  absence  of  color. 

Lead  windows  may  be  made  to  any  pattern,  and  in  this  there 
is  great  scope  for  the  display  of  a  correct  taste.  In  the  time 
of  Elizabeth,  this  branch  of  the  glazier's  art  was  carried  to 
great  excellence,  especially  by  one  Walter  Geddes,  who  was 
employed  in  glazing  most  of  the  royal  and  public  buildings 
of  that  period.  Geddes  executed  in  this  style  some  windows 
of  transcendent  beauty,  displaying  an  endless  variety  of  the 
most  elegant  and  elaborate  figures.  The  most  useful  and  most 
common  description  of  plain  glass  lead  windows,  however, 
are  those  of  the  diamond  or  lozenge  shape  ;  but,  as  already 
said,  they  may  be  made  to  any  pattern  desired. 

The  lead  work  can  be  adapted  with  ease  to  any  pattern 
that  may  be  chosen  for  the  glass  ;  and  it  can  likewise  be  made 
to  any  breadth,  from  one-eighth  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch. 

The  apparatus  and  tools  necessary  for  producing  this  are, 
a  glazier's  vice  or  lead  mill,  moulds  for  casting  the  lead  into 
slender  bars  or  rods  of  about  eighteen  inches  in  length,  which 
is  the  first  process ;  and  a  three-fourth  inch  chisel ;  a  hard- 
wood fillet  for  forcing  the  glass  into  the  grooves  in  the  lead 
frame-work  ;  and  an  opener  or  wedge  tool,  made  also  of  hard 
wood,  or  ebony,  for  laying  open  the  grooves  for  the  reception 
of  the  glass ;  two  copper  bolts  for  soldering,  the  end  formed 
like  an  egg. 

The  lead  intended  to  be  employed  in  Avindow-making  must 
be  soft,  and  of  the  very  best  quality  ;  and  great  care  must 
be  taken  to  have  the  moulds  properly  tempered,  otherwise 
the  lead  will  not  be  equally  diffused  in  them,  and  the  castings 
consequently  not  perfectly  solid  throughout,  as  they  ought 
to  be. 

The  castings  are,  as  already  noticed,  usually  about  eigh- 
teen inches  in  length,  and  are  afterward  extended  by  the 
mill  to  the  length  of  five  or  six  feet. 

It  may  not  be  unnecessary  to  add,  that  the  mill  not  only 
extends  the  lead,  and  reduces  it  at  the  pleasure  of  the  op- 
erator to  the  dimensions  required,  but  at  the  same  time  forms 


Glass — The  Cutting  Diamond.  231 

the  grooves  into  which  the  edge  of  the  glass  is  afterward  in- 
troduced in  forming  the  window. 

When  the  lead  has  been  prepared  in  the  manner  described, 
the  glazier  ought  to  proceed  to  cut  out  the  panes  wanted. 
For  this  operation  he  must  prepare  by  first  outlining  the  full 
dimensions  of  the  window,  and  then  lining  it  off  to  the  pat- 
tern required,  shaping  the  panes  accordingly.  If  the  window 
is  of  a  large  size,  this  may  be  done  by  compartments,  to  be 
afterward  united,  and  thus  be  more  conveniently  wrought. 

When  all  the  glass  has  been  cut  for  the  window,  the  next 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  open  the  grooves  in  the  lead  with  the 
opener  or  wedge  tool.  The  panes  are  then,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  water-tight,  fastened  very  firmly  into  the  grooves  with 
the  wooden  fillet  already  spoken  of  (which  may  be  fixed  on  the 
handle  of  the  chisel  or  cutting-tool),  the  parallel  lines  of  lead 
being  secured  in  their  proper  places  on  the  board,  when  the 
window  is  of  the  diamond  shape,  by  a  small  nail  at  either  end, 
until  the  course  is  finished,  when  the  work  is  permanently 
fastened  by  running  a  small  quantity  of  solder  gently  over 
the  two  connecting  pieces  of  lead  at  each  joint,  or  angular 
point.  When  the  window  has  been  completed,  it  should  be 
removed  from  the  working  board  to  a  flat  table,  and  there 
covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  cement,  composed  of  white  lead, 
lamp-black,  red  lead,  litharge,  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  with  a 
half- worn  paint-brush,  and  the  composition  carefully  rubbed 
into  every  joint.  This  will  render  the  window  completely 
impervious  to  the  weather,  as  the  cement,  if  properly  laid  on, 
will  fill  every  chink,  where  it  will  soon  become  as  hard  and 
durable  as  any  other  of  the  materials  of  which  the  window  is 
composed. 

The  window,  on  being  fitted  into  the  frame,  that  is,  on 
being  set  in  its  place  in  the  building  for  which  it  is  intended, 
ought  to  be  supported  with  iron  rods,  extending  three- eighths 
of  an  inch  beyond  the  breadth  of  the  frame  on  each  side, 
running  across  it  at  the  distance  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
inches  from  each  other,  and  secured  to  the  lead  frame-work 
at  intervals  with  copper  wire. 

THE  CUTTING  DIAMOND. 

Before  the  introduction  of  the  diamond  as  an  agent  in 
cutting  glass,  that  operation  was  performed   by  means  of 


232  Five  Black  Arts. 

emery,  sharp  pointed  instruments  of  the  hardest  steel,  and 
sometimes  red-hot  iron.  These  were  the  only  contrivances 
known  and  practiced  by  the  ancient  glaziers. 

In  considering  the  diamond  in  its  relations  to  the  purposes 
of  the  window-glass  cutter,  there  occur  some  circumstances 
not  unworthy  of  remark.  Amongst  these,  it  may  be  noticed, 
that  the  cutting  point  of  the  diamond  must  be  a  natural  one  ; 
an  artificial  point,  however  perfectly  formed,  will  only  scratch 
the  glass,  not  cut  it.  The  diamond  of  a  ring,  for  instance, 
will  not  cut  a  pane,  but  merely  mark  it  with  rough  superficial 
lines,  which  penetrate  but  a  very  little  way  inward.  Artificial 
points,  corners,  or  angles,  therefore,  produced  by  cutting  the 
diamond,  are  adapted  only  for  writing  or  for  drawing  figures 
on  glass,  and  such  were  those  used  by  Schwanhard,  Rest, 
and  the  other  old  artists  who  were  celebrated  for  ornamenting 
glass  vessels.  The  cutting  diamond  does  not  write  so  w^ell 
on  glass,  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  apt  to  enter  too 
deeply,  and  take  too  firm  a  hold  of  the  surface,  and  thus 
become  intractable.  It  may  be  further  noticed,  that  an 
accidental  point  produced  by  fracturing  the  diamond,  is  as 
unfit  for  cutting  as  an  artificial  one.  Such  a  point  will  also 
merely  scratch  the  glass.  No  point,  in  short,  that  is  not  given 
by  the  natural  formation  of  the  mineral,  will  answer  the  pur- 
poses of  the  window-glass  cutter. 

The  large  sparks,  as  the  diamonds  used  for  cutting  glass 
are  called,  are  generally  preferred  to  the  small  ones,  from 
the  circumstance  of  their  being  likely  to  possess  (although 
this  is  by  no  means  invariably  the  case)  a  number  of  cutting 
points  ;  while  the  very  small  sparks  are  not  always  found  to 
possess  more  than  one.  Thus,  if  the  point  of  the  latter  is  worn 
or  broken  off,  although  the  spark  be  turned,  and  reset  in 
its  socket,  it  will  still  be  without  the  power  of  cutting,  and 
consequently  useless ;  while  the  former,  on  undergoing  the 
same  operation,  will  present  a  new  and  effective  point. 

The  large  sparks  are  called  mother  sparks,  and  are  some- 
times cut  down  into  as  many  smaller  fragments,  bearing  the 
same  name,  as  there  are  natural  points  in  thom.  Each  of 
these,  therefore,  can  have  only  one  cutting  point,  and  are 
consequently  only  proportionately  valuable  to  the  glazier, 
since  they  cannot  be  restored  by  resetting. 

The  Setting  of  Diamonds  is  a  process  with  which  every 


^    0lfl7ip,r  or 


Glass — The  Cutting  Diamond.  233 


glazier  ought  to  be  acquainted ;  nor  is  it  an  art  of  difficult 
acquirement ;  some  practice,  and  a  little  patience,  are  all 
that  is  necessary. 

After  having  selected  a  stone,  as  clear  and  pellucid  as  pos- 
sible, and  of  an  octahedral  shape,  or  as  near  to  that  form  as 
it  can  be  procured,  the  workman  proceeds  to  ascertain  which 
is  its  cutting  point,  or,  if  it  has  more  than  one,  which  is  the 
best.  This  will  be  found  to  be  that  point  which  has  the  cutting 
edges  of  the  crystal  placed  exactly  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  and  passing  precisely  through  a  point  of  intersection 
made  by  the  crossing  of  the  edges. 

He  then  provides  a  piece  of  copper  or  brass  wire,  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  having  a  hole  drilled  in  one  of  its  ends 
large  enough  to  contain  three-fourths  of  the  diamond  to  be 
set.  Having  temporarily  secured  the  diamond  in  this  hole, 
the  setter  ascertains  the  cutting  point  by  trying  it  on  a  piece 
of  glass  ;  and  when  he  has  discovered  it,  he  marks  its  position 
by  making  a  slight  notch  in  the  wire  with  a  file  or  otherwise, 
exactly  opposite  to  the  cutting  point,  as  a  guide  to  him  in  his 
operations  when  he  comes  to  fix  it  permanently  in  the  socket 
head  of  the  handle.  "When  doing  this,  care  is  taken  to  keep 
it  exactly  parallel  with  the  inclined  plane  of  the  socket  head. 

The  cutting  point  having  been  ascertained,  and  the  diamond 
fixed  into  its  place,  the  wire  is  then  cut  off  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  below  the  diamond,  and  filed  down  to  fit  exactly 
into  the  aperture  in  the  socket  head,  into  which  it  must  be 
soldered.  The  rough  or  superfluous  metal  around  the  stone 
is  removed  with  a  file  ;  and,  lastly,  the  setting  is  polished 
with  emery  or  sand-paper.  Such  is  the  most  approved 
method  of  setting  new  diamonds,  and  it  applies  equally  to 
the  resetting  of  old  ones.  But  in  the  latter  case,  the  first 
process,  that  of  detaching  the  stone  from  its  bed,  is  accom- 
plished either  by  means  of  a  knife,  or  by  applying  the 
blow-pipe. 

The  art  of  managing  the  diamonds  in  glass-cutting,  so  as  to 
produce  effective  results,  can  only  be  attained  by  considerable 
experience.  The  diamond  must  be  held  in  a  particular  po- 
sition, and  with  a  particular  inclination,  otherwise  it  will  not 
cut,  and  the  slightest  deviation  from  either  renders  an  at- 
tempt to  do  so  abortive.  In  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced 
person  it  merely  scratches  the  glass^  leaving  a  long  rough 


234  Five  Black  Arts. 

furrow,  but  no  fissure.  The  glazier  judges  bj  his  ear  of  the 
cut  made.  When  the  cut  is  a  clean  and  effective  one,  the 
diamond  produces,  in  the  act  of  being  drawn  along,  a  sharp, 
keen,  and  equal  sound.  When  the  cut  is  not  a  good  one, 
this  sound  is  harsh,  grating,  and  irregular.  On  perceiving 
this,  the  operator  alters  the  inclination  and  position  of  his 
diamond,  until  the  proper  sound  is  emitted,  when  he  proceeds 
with  his  cut. 

The  diamonds  employed  in  glass-cutting  are  of  the  descrip- 
tion known  by  the  technical  name  of  bort^  a  classification  which 
includes  all  such  pieces  as  are  too  small  to  be  cut,  or  are  of 
a  bad  color,  and  consequently  unfit  for  ornamental  purposes. 
These  are  accordingly  selected  from  the  better  sort,  and  sold 
separately,  at  an  inferior  price. 

Though  there  are  many  substances  that  will  scratch  glass, 
the  diamond  was  thought  to  be  the  only  one  that  would  cut 
it ;  but  some  experiments  of  Dr.  Wollaston  have  shown  that 
this  is  not  strictly  correct.  That  eminent  philosopher  gave 
to  pieces  of  sapphire,  ruby,  spinel  ruby,  rock  crystal,  and 
some  other  substances,  that  peculiar  curvilinear  edge  which 
forms  the  cutting  point  in  the  diamond,  and  in  which,  and  in 
its  hardness,  its  singular  property  of  cutting  entirely  lies,  and 
with  these  succeeded  in  cutting  glass  with  a  perfectly  clear 
fissure.  They  lasted,  however,  but  for  a  very  short  time, 
soon  losing  their  edge,  although  prepared  at  a  great  expense 
of  labor  and  care ;  while  the  diamond  comes  ready  formed 
from  the  hand  of  nature,  and  will  last  for  many  years. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  FLINT-GLASS  OR  CRYSTAL. 

This  branch  may  be  defined  the  art  of  forming  useful  and 
ornamental  articles  of  glass,  and  is  the  most  ancient  depart- 
ment of  glass  manufacture.  The  manipulatory  processes 
have  scarcely  been  varied  and  only  slightly  extended  since 
the  earliest  times.  The  progress  of  chemistry  has  supplied 
purer  materials  but  introduced  few  new  ones.  Thus  we  find 
that  barj-ta  has  replaced  the  lead,  and  soda  the  potash  in 
ancient  glass,  while  in  the  production  of  colored  glasses  purer 
and  additional  metallic  oxides  are  used.  Yet  this  art  has 
shown  less  tractability  in  the  hands  of  the  improver  than  per- 
haps any  other  industrial  art. 


Glass — Flint  or  Crystal.  235 

The  best  flint-glass  or  crystal  is  composed  of  silica,  potash, 
and  lead,  the  average  proportion  being  one-half  sand,  one- 
third  red  lead  or  litharge,  one-sixth  carbonate  of  potash,  and 
a  little  saltpeter,  manganese,  and  white  arsenic  to  correct 
and  improve  the  color  or  accidental  impurities  of  the  other 
materials.  For  inferior  glass,  or  "  tail  metal "  as  it  is  tech- 
nically called,  soda  is  substituted  for  potash,  and  baryta  for 
lead  or  litharge.  In  still  cheaper  "  metal  "  for  common  small 
phials  or  bottles,  a  mixture  approximating  that  for  window- 
glass  is  used.  For  optical  purposes  the  proportion  of  lead  is 
increased  to  improve  the  refractive  properties,  which  increase 
in  proportion  to  the  density  of  the  medium.  The  specific 
gravity  of  the  metals  varies  from  about  3-6  to  2*5. 

The  furnaces  employed  are  generally  circular,  and  contain 
eight  or  ten  pots.  The  "  found,"  as  the  period  of  melting 
the  materials  is  termed,  commences  generally  on  a  Friday 
evening.  The  materials  or  "  batch,"  and  a  portion  of  broken 
glass  or  "  cullet"  being  mixed  together  are  gradually  intro- 
duced into  the  heated  pot.  The  grate  is  in  the  center  of  the 
furnace,  and  there  are  flues  at  the  back  of  the  piers  between 
the  arches.  As  the  batch  melts  there  is  a  considerable  evo- 
lution of  gases,  which  at  length  subsides,  when  the  metal 
begins  to ''  fine"  and  reaches  the  "  crisis."  It  is  then  cooled 
until  about  the  consistency  of  thick  honey.  The  evolution 
of  the  gases  disperses  air-bubbles  through  it ;  and  the  glass- 
maker  endeavors  so  to  regulate  the  heat  of  the  furnace  that 
the  bubbles  may  rise  to  the  surface,  burst,  and  leave  the  metal 
plain  and  fine,  but  if  the  heat  be  continued  beyond  the  crisis, 
the  quality  of  the  metal  is  deteriorated.  For  some  time  after 
the  greater  part  of  the  gas  has  escaped,  little  bells  or  beads, 
technically  called  "  seeds,"  rise  and  are  extricated  more  freely 
by  agitation  or  alteration  of  temperature.  If  the  metal  be- 
comes solid  while  these  bubbles  are  rising,  it  retains  them, 
and  if  the  "  crisis  "  is  not  quickly  passed,  although  the  seed 
may  be  overcome  by  long-continued  fusion,  yet  bad  color  and 
other  defects  arise.  Strings  and  striae,  which  upon  close  ex- 
amination may  be  found  in  nearly  all  glass,  are  very  common 
and  troublesome.  They  may  be  caused  by  improper  mixing 
of  the  materials,  separation  in  the  pot  of  metal  of  different 
densities,  large  grains  of  sand  or  pieces  of  refractory  clay. 
But  as  strings  and  striae  in  clear  ice  give  pure  water  when 


236  Five  Black  Arts. 

melted,  so  in  glass,  mechanical  rather  than  chemical  means      } 
must  be  used  for  their  prevention  and  cure.      For  optical       i 
glass  Bontemps  has  carried  out  the  recommendation  of  Fara- 
day, and  bj  systematically  stirring  the  fluid  glass  has  nearly 
reduced  the  manufacture  of  optical  glass  for  large  lenses  to  a 
certainty. 

Crystal  glass  is  popularly  called  colorless,  but  a  practiced 
eye  quickly  detects  color,  which  is  more  readily  perceptible 
in  the  mass.  It  is  probable  that  even  pure  silica,  oxide  of 
lead,  and  carbonate  of  potash  will  not  produce  colorless  glass, 
but  that  there  is  a  color  proper  to  glass  as  there  is  to  air  and 
water.  But  the  main  causes  of  color  in  crystal  are  slight  im- 
purities, consisting  of  the  oxides  of  iron  or  compounds  of  sul- 
phur or  carbon.  A  large  excess  of  lead  gives  a  yellow  color 
— the  oxides  of  iron,  orange  or  olive-green  tints,  and  com- 
pounds of  sulphur  or  carbon,  orange  or  blue.  The  peroxide 
of  iron  gives  orange  of  a  light  tint,  compared  with  the  olive- 
green  produced  by  the  same  quantity  of  the  protoxide  of 
iron.  The  addition  of  the  black  oxide  of  manganese  or  of 
saltpeter,  produces  purple,  peroxidizes  the  oxide  of  iron, 
and,  combined,  forms  what  is  called  white,  but  practically  an 
approach  to  black,  and  by  a  large  dose  of  these  materials 
glass  of  opaque  blackness  may  be  produced.  Saltpeter  also 
peroxidizes  the  iron,  and  heightens  the  color  due  to  manga- 
nese. Purity  of  materials  is  essential  to  success,  and  oxide  of 
manganese  was  formerly  called  glass-makers'  soap  ;  but  al- 
though it  reduces  the  color  arising  from  iron,  it  does  not  an- 
nihilate it.  Glass  rendered  colorless  by  manganese  becomes 
pink  by  exposure  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  if  too 
much  is  used  in  the  "  batch'*  the  metal  is  rendered  pink,  and 
is  called  high-colored.  Glass  with  too  little  manganese  has 
a  "  low  color."  The  high  color  may  be  reduced  by  the  de- 
oxidizing agency  of  a  pole  of  wood,  with  which,  in  such  case, 
the  metal  is  stirred.  Some  of  the  high  color  is  lost  in  the 
annealing,  and  thick  vessels  remaining  long  in  the  "leir"  or 
oven  lose  more  than  the  light  articles  which  are  passed  quickly 
through ;  therefore  to  obtain  equality  of  color,  the  metal  for 
thick  goods  must  be  highest  colored.  Arsenious  acid  is  also 
employed  as  a  corrective  of  color.  Sulphur  is  a  powerful 
agent  in  coloring  glass.  Sometimes  a  pot  of  metal  foams 
while  melting  and  is  of  a  dark  amber  or  orange  color,  which 


Glass — Flint  or  Crystal.  237 

occasionally  it  retains  when  cool,  or  at  other  times  changes 
to  the  light  blue  tint  of  the  common  soda-water  bottle.  Both 
tints  are  caused  bj  the  presence  of  sulphur,  the  orange  bj 
the  larger  quantity.  One  part  of  sulphur  to  two  hundred  of 
glass  produces  a  dark  color ;  hence,  by  adding  a  sulphuret 
to  the  melted  metal  the  tints  can  be  deepened  at  will.  Split- 
gerber  shows  that  glass  containing  one  of  sulphur  in  three 
hundred  of  glass  becomes  at  a  moderate  low  red  heat  nearly 
black  and  opaque,  but  becomes  more  transparent  at  a  higher 
temperature.  Similar  changes  are  produced  by  heat  on  sul- 
phur in  its  pure  state.  At  its  melting-point  it  is  lemon  yel- 
low ;  at  higher  temperatures  it  becomes  orange,  and  gradually 
deepens  nearly  black,  and  at  a  still  stronger  heat  is  volatil- 
ized in  yellow  vapors.  Similar  results  are  obtained  with 
glass  colored  by  gold,  silver,  and  copper ;  glass  colored  by 
sulphur  takes  a  deeper  stain  from  silver  than  other  glass,  but 
if  overheated  becomes  a  light  greenish-yellow  on  the  reverse, 
and  dark  chestnut  on  the  obverse,  and  is  rendered  useless. 
In  Bohemia,  glass  consisting  only  of  potash,  silica,  and  lime 
is  stained  of  a  bright  scarlet  color  by  copper  :  the  process  is 
not  followed  in  Britain,  probably  in  consequence  of  British 
glass  always  containing  lead  or  soda. 

The  metallic  colors  used  for  flint  glass  are  cobalt  for  blue ; 
chromium  or  a  mixture  of  iron  and  copper  for  green  ;  manga- 
nese for  purple  ;  copper  for  deep  scarlet  or  light  blue ;  gold  for 
crimson ;  antimony  or  iron  for  yellow ;  uranium  for  topaz. 
Glass  colored  by  the  oxide  of  uranium  exposed  in  a  dark  room 
to  the  dim  light  of  the  electric  Aurora  becomes  translucent 
and  illuminated  throughout,  and  is  partially  so  when  exposed 
to  the  hydrogen  flame.  White  enamel  is  obtained  by  the  ad- 
dition of  the  oxides  of  arsenic,  tin,  fluor  spar,  or  phosphate  of 
lime,  and  colored  enamels  are  produced  by  adding  the  appro- 
priate metallic  oxides. 

In  the  manipulation  of  the  glass  the  men  are  arranged  in 
sets  of  four,  called  chairs,  and  there  are  generally  four  chairs 
to  a  furnace.  The  principal  workman  of  each  chair  is  called 
the  gaffer  J  the  second  the  servitor^  the  third  the  foot-maJcer^ 
and  a  boy  completes  the  set.  The  wages  of  these  men  vary 
(in  Great  Britain)  from  60s.  to  208.  per  week.  The  work  is 
heavy,  and  requires  such  skill  and  dexterity  that  few  first-class 
workmen  are  found.     The  men  work  in  six-hour  shifts,  there 


238  Five  Black  Arts. 

being  a  complete  double  set.  The  first  operation  of  the  glass- 
blower  is  to  skim  the  metal,  as  most  impurities  float  on  its 
surface,  and  this  is  done  with  an  iron  rod  heated  at  its  extrem- 
ity and  dipped  into  the  metal,  a  little  of  which  adheres. 
This  is  flattened  on  an  iron  plate  and  repeatedly  introduced, 
gradually  growing  larger  until  it  gathers  and  removes  all  the 
floating  matter  from  the  surface  of  the  metal.  The  operation 
of  making  crystal  articles  then  goes  on  as  follows. 

An  iron  tube  is  heated  at  the  end  and  dipped  into  the 
semi-fluid  metal,  a  portion  of  which  is  collected,  withdrawn 
from  the  pot,  and  then  rolled  on  an  iron  plate  called 
the  marver,  until  it  has  acquired  a  circular  shape.  The 
marver  also  equalizes  the  heat  of  the  gathering,  which  the 
iron  tube  cools  and  stiffens,  and  which  requires  to  be  equally 
ductile  in  all  its  parts.  The  servitor  now  prepares  a  'po^t^  as 
a  flattened  round  hot  lump  of  metal  on  a  punty  or  iron  rod 
is  called,  and  applies  it  to  the  end  of  the  globe.  The  two 
masses  of  glass  are  thus  united  together,  and  that  attached  to 
the  hollow  tube  is  separated  by  touching  it,  near  to  where  the 
tube  enters  the  globe,  with  a  small  piece  of  iron  wetted  with 
water.  By  this  means  the  glass  cracks,  and  a  smart  blow  on 
the  iron  tube  completes  the  disunion.  The  workman  now  takes 
the  punty  from  his  assistant,  and  laying  it  on  his  chair 
arm,  rolls  it  backward  and  forward  with  his  left  arm,  while 
with  his  right  he  moulds  it  into  the  various  shapes  required, 
by  means  of  a  very  few  simple  instruments.  By  one  of  these 
called  a  procello,  the  blades  of  which  are  attached  by  an 
elastic  bow  like  a  pair  of  sugar  tongs,  the  dimensions  of  the 
vessel  can  be  enlarged  or  contracted  at  pleasure.  Any  super- 
fluous material  is  cut  away  by  a  pair  of  scissors.  For  smooth- 
ing and  equalizing  the  sides  of  the  vessel  a  piece  of  wood  is  used. 
After  the  article  is  finished  it  is  detached  from  the  punty  and 
carried  on  a  pronged  stick  to  the  annealing  oven  or  leir. 

For  a  fluted  or  ribbed  cane^  as  a  solid  glass  rod  is  techni- 
cally called,  the  metal  is  forced  into  a  mould  of  the  requisite 
shape  and  then  withdrawn  ;  after  which,  if  attached  to  an- 
other pout  and  the  two  punties  be  twisted  and  drawn  in  oppo- 
site directions,  the  ribs  become  spiral  lines,  which  become 
more  acute  as  the  drawing  is  extended.  Venetian  filigree 
work  is  produced  in  this  way  ;  and  if  in  the  hollow  flates  of 
the  mould  colored  glass  or  enamels  are  inserted,  and  the  gath- 


I 


rLASS — FLINT   OR   (JRYSTAL. 

ering  introduced,  the  colored  glass  or  enamels  are  welded 
to  and  withdrawn  with  it.  When  again  heated,  and  twisted 
or  drawn,  these  streaks  of  color  or  enamel  become  spiral,  and 
ornament  the  surface.  If  before  being  drawn  the  mass  be 
redipped  into  the  pot  of  crystal  glass  and  then  twisted,  the 
spiral  lines  of  color  or  enamel  become  internal.  By  the  rep- 
etition of  this  process  spirals  can  be  formed  within  spirals, 
and  by  placing  these  filigree  canes  side  by  side  and  welding 
them  together,  very  curious  and  intricate  patterns  are  ob- 
tained. By  the  ordinary  process  of  blowing,  vessels  are  form- 
ed with  smooth  and  concentric  interior  and  exterior  surfaces, 
and  do  not  exhibit  the  brilliancy  of  the  crystal  so  much  as 
when  it  has  numerous  inequalities.  The  most  brilliant  effect 
is  produced  by  cutting,  but  moulding  is  much  cheaper,  and 
this  branch  of  the  art  has  now  reached  a  high  state  of  excel- 
lence. The  moulds  are  generally  of  iron  highly  polished,  and 
kept  a  little  below  a  red  heat.  The  surface  of  the  metal  is 
injured  by  contact  with  the  mould,  but  its  transparency  is  re- 
stored by  being  reheated.  A  very  exact  regulation  of  the 
temperature  is  necessary  in  reheating  fine  moul  ings ;  too 
little  heat  does  not  give  the  ''fire  polish,"  too  much  softens  the 
metal  and  obliterates  the  mouldings.  The  moulds  for  pressed 
goods  are  made  in  pieces  so  hinged  or  connected  as  to  close 
and  leave  a  vacuity,  the  form  of  the  article  required,  the  hol- 
low in  which  is  not  however  produced  by  blowing  but  by  the 
plunger  of  the  press  under  which  the  mould  is  placed.  The 
required  quantity  of  metal  is  then  dropt  in,  when  the  plunger 
descends  and  forces  it  into  all  parts  of  the  cavity,  completing 
the  formation  of  the  article,  which  is  then  stuck  to  a  punty, 
and  fire-polished  and  annealed. 

What  is  called  cased  glass  is  crystal  covered  with  coats  of 
colored  glass.  It  is  thus  obtained.  The  gathering  of  crys- 
tal is  thrust  into  a  colored  or  enameled  shell,  which  is  previ- 
ously prepared.  The  welding  is  completed  by  reheating ; 
and  two  or  more  coats  of  different  colors  or  enamels  may 
thus  be  employed.  When  cut  through  to  the  crystal  in  vari- 
ous figures,  the  edges  of  the  different  colors  on  enamel  are 
seen. 

The  Venetian  frosted  glass  is  obtained  by  immersing  the 
hot  metal  gathering  in  cold  water,  quickly  withdrawing  it, 
reheating  and  expanding  it  by  blowing,  before  it  becomes  so 


240  Five  Black  Arts. 

hot  as  to  weld  together  the  numerous  cracks  on  the  -surface 
caused  by  the  cold  water.  These  cracks  only  penetrate 
where  the  metal  has  been  cooled  by  the  water,  and  remain 
as  depressions  until  the  article  is  finished. 

Venetian  vitro-di-trono  consists  of  spiral  lines  of  enamels 
or  colors,  crossing  each  other  diamond-wise,  in  the  body  of 
the  glass,  and  inclosing  an  air-bubble  in  the  center  of  each 
diamond.  It  is  thus  formed  :  a  gathering  is  blown  in  the 
mould  with  the  necessary  canes  twisted  and  blown  out  as 
formerly  described  for  spiral  filigree,  the  canes  being  left 
projecting  from  the  outside  like  ribs  or  flutes.  A  similar 
piece  is  made  and  turned  inside  out.  The  projecting  canes 
on  this  piece  are  on  the  inside,  and  the  spiral  lines  reversed. 
The  one  piece  is  then  placed  under  the  other,  and  both  are 
welded  together.  The  ribs  or  flutes  projecting  from  the  two 
surfaces  in  contact  inclose  air  in  the  diamonds,  which  gradually 
assumes  the  bubble  shape.  The  vessel  is  then  formed  in  the 
ordinary  manner.  The  most  beautiful  regularity  of  lines  is 
thus  obtained  ;  and  when  the  ends  are  closed  by  the  procellos, 
the  lines  are  drawn  to  a  center  as  regularly  arranged  as 
if  they  had  been  turned  in  an  engine. 

Incrustations  are  formed  by  placing  the  substance  to  be 
incased  on  -the  surface  of  the  article  and  dropping  melted 
metal  on  it,  or  by  preparing  an  open  tube  of  glass,  inserting 
the  object,  and  welding  the  open  end.  By  suction  instead 
of  blowing,  the  metal  is  collapsed  on  the  object,  and  the  air 
withdrawn.  From  the  unequal  contraction  between  the  ob- 
ject and  the  crystal  by  which  it  is  surrounded  there  is  much 
difficulty  in  the  annealing,  and  to  avoid  the  risk  of  breakage 
the  object  should  be  made  of  materials  expanding  and  con- 
tracting like  the  glass  itself. 

The  round,  heavy  paper  weights  containing  various  orna- 
ments apparently  in  the  body  of  the  metal  are  made  as 
follows :  Canes  are  made  to  the  required  pattern — say,  for 
example,  a  star  within  a  tube.  A  gathering  of  white  enamel 
is  formed  in  a  star-shaped  mould,  and  coated  with  crystal. 
After  this  is  marvered,  it  is  dipped  into  a  colored  enamel,  and 
drawn  out  into  a  cane  ;  and  if  this  is  covered  with  crystal, 
the  eye  cannot  detect  the  junction  of  the  external  crystal  with 
that  of  the  cane,  but  the  enamel  casing  will  appear  as  a  tube 
with  the  star  standing  in  the  center.     Devices  of  numerous 


Glass — Bottle.  241 

kinds  are  thus  made  in  canes,  and  then  welded  together. 
The  end  is  then  ground,  and  after  being  heated  and  incased 
in  crystal,  the  lens-like  shape  of  the  paper  weights  adds  to 
the  effect  by  magnifying  the  incrusted  canes. 

The  light-refracting  properties  of  crystal  are  best  shown 
by  cutting  and  polishing.  Stones  of  various  textures,  or 
wood,  sand,  or  emery,  in  water,  are  used  with  the  metal  mills, 
water  only  with  the  stones,  and  pumice-stone  and  putty-pow- 
der with  the  wood  for  smoothing  and  polishing.  The  articles 
are  held  in  the  hand,  and  applied  to  the  mill  while  rotating. 
The  punty  marks  are  ground  off  tumblers,  wine-glasses,  and 
such  like,  by  boys  holding  them  on  small  stone  mills.  Ground 
or  frosted  glass  is  made  by  rubbing  the  surface  with  sand  and 
water.  Iron  tools  fixed  on  a  lathe  and  moistened  with  sand 
and  water  are  used  to  rough  out  the  stoppers  and  necks  of 
bottles,  which  are  completed  by  hand  with  emery  and  water. 
The  neighborhood  of  the  coal-fields  is  of  course  the  chief 
seat  of  the  manufacture,  and  probably  the  best  crystal  of 
Great  Britain  is  now  made  in  Manchester. 

BOTTLE-GLASS. 

The  common  green  or  bottle-glass  is  made  of  the  coarsest 
materials ;  sand,  lime,  sometimes  clay,  any  kind  of  alkali  or 
alkaline  ashes,  whose  cheapness  may  recommend  it  to  the 
manufacturer,  and  sometimes  the  vitreous  slag  produced  from 
the  fusion  of  iron  ore.  The  mixture  most  commonly  used 
is  soap  maker's  waste,  in  the  proportion  of  three  measures  to 
one  measure  of  sand.  The  green  color  of  this  glass  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  existence  of  a  portion  of  iron  in  the  sand,  and, 
it  may  be,  also  in  the  vegetable  ashes  of  which  it  is  composed. 

When  castor-oil  or  champagne  bottles  are  wanted,  a  por- 
tion of  crown-glass  cullet  is  added,  to  improve  the  color. 
The  impurity  of  the  alkaU,  and  the  abundance  of  fluxing 
materials  of  an  earthy  nature,  combined  with  the  intense 
heat  to  which  they  are  subjected,  occasion  the  existence  of 
but  a  very  small  proportion  of  real  saline  matter  in  the  glass, 
and  thereby  render  it  better  than  flint-glass  for  holding  fluids 
possessing  corrosive  properties. 

The  soap-maker's  waste  is  generally  calcined  in  two  coarse 
arches,  which  are  kept  at  a  strong  red  heat  from  twenty-four 

16 


242  Five  Black  Arts. 

to  thirty  hours,  the  time  required  to  melt  the  materials  and 
work  them  into  glass,  which  is  termed  a  journey.  After  the 
soap-maker's  waste  is  taken  out  of  the  arch,  it  is  ground  and 
mixed  with  sand  in  the  proportions  already  mentioned.  This 
mixture  is  put  into  the  fine  arches,  and  again  calcined  during 
the  working  journey,  which  occupies  ten  or  twelve  hours 
more.  "VYhen  the  journey  is  over,  the  pots  are  again  filled 
with  the  red-hot  materials  out  of  the  fine  calcining  arch. 
Six  hours  are  required  to  melt  this  additional  quantity  of 
materials.  The  pots  are  again  filled  up,  and  in  about  four 
hours  this  filling  is  also  melted.  The  furnace  is  then  kept  at 
the  highest  possible  degree  of  heat,  and  in  the  course  of  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  hours,  according  as  the  experience  of  the 
founder  may  determine,  the  materials  in  the  pots  are  formed 
into  a  liquid  glass  fit  for  making  bottles.  The  furnace  is  now 
checked  by  closing  the  doors  of  the  cave,  and  the  metal  cool- 
ing, it  becomes  more  dense,  and  all  the  extraneous  matter 
not  formed  into  glass  floats  upon  the  top.  Before  beginning 
to  work,  this  is  skimmed  ofi"  in  the  way  already  described  in 
our  account  of  crown-glass  making.  A  sufficient  quantity 
of  coals  is  added  at  intervals,  to  keep  the  furnace  at  a  work- 
ing heat  till  the  journey  is  finished. 

After  the  pots  have  been  skimmed  the  person  who  begins 
the  work  is  the  gatherer,  who,  after  heating  the  pipe,  gathers 
on  it  a  small  quantity  of  metal.  After  allowing  this  to  cool 
a  little,  he  again  gathers  such  a  quantity  as  he  conceives  to 
be  sufficient  to  make  a  bottle.  This  is  then  handed  to  the 
blower,  who,  while  blowing  through  the  tube,  rolls  the  metal 
upon  a  stone,  at  the  same  time  turning  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 
He  then  puts  the  metal  into  a  brass  or  cast-iron  mould  of  the 
shape  of  the  bottle  wanted,  and,  continuing  to  blow  through 
the  tube,  brings  it  to  the  desired  form.  The  patent  mould 
now  in  use  is  made  of  brass,  the  inside  finely  polished,  divided 
into  two  pieces,  which  the  workman,  by  pressing  a  spring 
with  his  foot,  opens  and  shuts  at  pleasure.  The  blower  then 
hands  it  to  the  finisher,  who  touches  the  neck  of  the  bottle 
with  a  small  piece  of  iron  dipped  in  water,  which  cuts  it 
completely  ofi*  from  the  pipe.  He  next  attaches  the  punty, 
which  is  a  little  metal  gathering  from  the  pot,  to  the  bottom 
of  the  bottle,  and  thereby  gives  it  the  shape  which  it  usually  pre- 
sents.    This  punty  may  be  used  for  from  eighteen  to  twenty- 


rLASS- 


►OTTLE. 


four  dozen  of  bottles.  It  is  occasionally  dipped  into  sand  to 
prevent  its  adhering  to  the  bottle.  The  finisher  then  warms 
the  bottle  at  the  furnace,  and  taking  a  small  quantity  of  metal 
on  what  is  termed  a  ring  iron,  he  turns  it  once  round  the 
mouth,  forming  the  ring  seen  at  the  mouth  of  bottles.  He 
then  employs  the  shears  to  give  shape  to  the  neck.  One  of 
the  blades  of  the  shears  has  a  piece  of  brass  in  the  center, 
tapered  like  a  common  cork,  which  forms  the  inside  mouth ; 
to  the  other  is  attached  a  piece  of  brass,  used  to  form  the 
ring.  The  bottle  is  then  lifted  by  the  neck  on  a  fork  by  a 
little  fellow  about  ten  years  of  age,  and  carried  to  the  an- 
nealing arch,  where  the  bottles  are  placed  in  bins,  above  one 
another.  This  arch  is  kept  a  little  below  melting  heat,  till 
the  whole  quantity,  which  amounts  to  ten  or  twelve  gross  in 
each  arch,  is  deposited,  when  the  fire  is  allowed  to  die  out. 


HISTORY 


PROCESS  OF  MAKING  GASLIGHT. 


GAS-LIGHT. 


Light,  whether  obtained  from  natural  or  artificial  sources, 
is  so  necessary  for  the  correct  and  successful  execution  of 
almost  every  operation  of  human  industry,  that  whatever  is 
calculated  to  simplify  the  means  of  procuring  it,  or  to  in- 
crease its  intensity,  cannot  fail  to  be  attended  with  the  most 
beneficial  consequences  to  civilized  society.  For  every  pur- 
pose to  which  it  is  applied,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  light 
of  day,  when  it  can  be  enjoyed  freely  and  without  interrup- 
tion, is  by  far  the  most  suitable ;  but  in  large  and  crowded 
cities,  as  well  as  in  situations  less  favorable  in  point  of  climate, 
where  the  sun  is  sometimes  shrouded  for  days  together  in 
dense  and  impenetrable  clouds,  it  becomes  expedient  to  com- 
pensate for  the  absence  of  his  rays  by  artificial  substitutes, 
which,  however  inferior  in  brilliancy  and  general  usefulness, 
may  nevertheless  answer  sufficiently  well  in  those  cases  where 
a  less  ample  supply  of  light  is  requisite. 

Some  substances,  denominated  phosphorescent,  have  the 
property  of  absorbing  the  solar  rays,  on  being  exposed  for  a 
short  time  to  their  influence,  and  of  emitting  the  light  which 
they  thus  imbibe  when  they  are  afterward  placed  in  the 
dark ;  but  the  feeble  and  transient  illumination  which  they 
shed,  though  sufficient  to  indicate  their  luminous  condition,  is 
totally  unfit  to  afford  such  a  supply  of  light  as  is  necessary 
for  conducting  any  of  the  operations  of  art,  which  require 
care  and  precision  for  their  performance. 

There  are,  however,  a  variety  of  inflammable  substances, 
both  of  animal  and  vegetable  origin,  which,  during  the  process 
♦f  combustion,  give  out  light  as  well  as  heat ;  and  hence, 
f.'om  the  earliest  periods  of  human  society,  it  has  been 
cistomary  to  burn  substances  of  that  description  for  the  pur- 


248  Five  Black  Arts. 

pose  of  obtaining  artificial  light.  These  substances,  which 
were  generally  of  a  fatty  or  oleaginous  nature,  are  composed 
chiefly  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  When  they  are  exposed  to 
a  certain  high  temperature,  they  are  resolved  into  some  of 
the  compound  gases  which  result  from  the  union  of  these  ele- 
ments, particularly  carburetted,  and  bi-carburetted  hydrogen, 
or  olefiant  gas,  both  of  which  are  highly  inflammable,  and 
yield,  during  their  combustion,  a  fine  white  light.  In  order 
to  facilitate  the  decomposition,  and  to  carry  on  the  combus- 
tion with  due  economy,  a  quantity  of  some  fibrous  substance,  in 
the  form  of  a  wick,  is  connected  with  the  oleaginous  matter, 
for  the  purpose  of  causing  it  to  burn  slowly  and  effectually. 
Accordingly,  if  the  flame  be  suddenly  extinguished,  the  in- 
flammable gas  which  is  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the 
matter  in  immediate  contact  with  the  wick  is  observed  to 
escape  from  it,  and  may  be  again  set  on  fire  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  lighted  taper. 

When  it  is  required  to  convey  from  place  to  place  the  light 
obtained  from  these  substances,  no  arrangement  is  found  to 
be  more  convenient  for  their  decomposition  than  that  which 
is  effected  by  means  of  the  wick ;  but  if  the  light  is  to  re- 
main in  a  permanent  position,  it  will  frequently  be  more  ad- 
vantageous to  resolve  the  oleaginous  matter  into  gas,  and  then 
to  transmit  it,  in  that  state,  through  pipes,  to  the  various 
points  where  it  is  to  be  consumed. 

Although  the  different  substances  which  have  been  used 
from  the  earliest  times  for  yielding  artificial  light  have  always 
been  actually  resolved  into  gas  before  they  underwent  the 
process  of  combustion,  that  fact  was  entirely  unknown  until 
pneumatic  chemistry  unfolded  the  properties  of  the  aerial 
bodies,  which  perform  so  many  important  functions  in  the 
economy  of  nature,  as  well  as  in  the  processes  of  the  arts. 
It  was  then  discovered  that  hydrogen,  one  of  the  component 
parts  of  vfater,  was  a  highly  inflammable  gas,  capable  of 
being  produced  under  a  great  variety  of  circumstances:  from 
vegetable  matter  decaying  in  stagnant  water,  forming  what 
is  called  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  a  stream  of  which,  when , 
ignited,  produces  the  natural  phenomenon  known  as  "  ignis- 
fatuus,  or  Will-o'-the-Wisp  :"  from  coal,  oils,  and  fatty  sub- 
stances, when,  in  combination  with  larger  proportions  (^ 
carbon,  it  forms  gases  of  high  illuminating  powers.     The  u/ 


Gas — Manufacture.  249 

of  gas  for  the  purpose  of  illumination  is  therefore  of  recent 
date  ;  but  although  late  in  its  origin,  the  successive  inaprove- 
ments  which  the  invention  has  received,  and  continues  to  re- 
ceive, from  the  joint  labors  of  chemists  and  practical  engi- 
neers, have  tended  greatly  to  simplify  the  processes  for 
producing  the  gas,  and  for  improving  its  quality  and  means  of 
distribution. 

In  many  parts  of  the  world  there  are  certain  deposits  of 
petroleum  or  naphtha  which  furnish  gaseous  matter ;  and 
this  issuing  from  some  fissure  in  the  earth,  becomes  ignited 
by  lightning  or  some  other  cause,  and  continues  to  burn  for 
a  long  period.  Such  a  flame  is  regarded  by  an  ignorant 
people  with  superstitious  reverence,  and  has  been  sufficient  to 
found  a  religious  sect  of  fire-worshipers.  Deposits  of  coal, 
or  of  bituminous  schist,  sometimes  furnish  the  gaseous  matter 
for  such  flames.  The  practical  Chinese,  about  thirty  miles 
from  Pekin,  are  said  to  make  use  of  this  gas  in  the  boihng 
and  evaporating  of  salt  brine,  and  for  lighting  their  streets 
and  houses.*  *'  Burning  fountains,"  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  are  not  uncommon,  and  their  origin  is  the  same.  In 
1851,  in  boring  for  water  on  Chat  Moss,  on  the  line  of  rail- 
way between  Manchester  and  Liverpool,  a  stream  of  gas 
suddenly  issued  up  the  bore,  floated  along  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  caught  fire  on  the  application  of  flame.  A  pipe 
was  inserted  into  the  bore,  and  a  flame  eight  or  nine  feet  long 
was  thus  produced. 

In  1667,  Mr.  Shirley  describes  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society  a  burning  spring  in  the  coal  dis- 
trict of  Wit^an  in  Lancashire  :  he  traced  its  orio^in  to  the  un- 
derlying  beds  of  coal.  In  1726,  Dr.  Hales,  in  his  work  on 
Vegetable  Statics,  gives  an  experiment  on  the  distillation  of 
coal,  by  which  it  appears  that  158  grains  of  Newcastle  coal 
yielded  180  cubic  inches  of  inflammable  air.  In  1733,  Sir 
James  Lowther  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  specimens  of  in- 
flammable air  from  a  coal-mine  near  Whitehaven.  The  gas 
was  collected  in  bladders,  and  a  number  of  experiments  were 
tried  on  it. 

It  appears,  however,  that  the  Rev.  John  Clayton  had  per- 
formed some  experiments  on  the  distillation  of  coal  some 
years  previous  to  the  publication  of  Dr.  Hales*s  book ;  but 

*  So  do  the  practical  Americans. 


250  Five  Black  Arts. 

he  did  not  publish  an  account  of  them  until  1739,  and  this 
account  consists  of  an  extract  from  a  letter  written  by  Clay- 
ton to  the  Hon.  Robt.  Boyle,  who  died  in  1691,  and  was 
probably  written  sometime  before  this  year.  It  is  inserted  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  for  the  year  1739  ; 
and  is  probably  the  earliest  evidence  of  the  possibility  of  ex- 
tracting from  coal,  by  means  of  heat,  a  permanently  elastic 
fluid  of  an  inflammable  nature.  We  shall  therefore  give  the 
account  of  the  discovery  in  his  own  words :  Having  introduced 
a  quantity  of  coal  into  a  retort,  and  placed  it  over  an  open 
fire,  he  states  that  "  at  first  there  came  over  only  phlegm, 
afterward  a  black  oil,  and  then  likewise  a  spirit  arose  which 
I  could  noways  condense  ;  but  it  forced  my  lute,  or  broke  my 
glasses.  Once  when  it  had  forced  my  lute,  coming  close 
thereto  in  order  to  try  to  repair  it,  I  observed  that  the  spirit 
which  issued  out  caught  fire  at  the  flame  of  the  candle,  and 
continued  burning  with  violence  as  it  issued  out  in  a  stream, 
which  I  blew  out  and  lighted  again  alternately  for  several 
times.  I  then  had  a  mind  to  try  if  I  could  save  any  of  this 
spirit ;  in  order  to  which  I  took  a  turbinated  receiver,  and 
putting  a  candle  to  the  pipe  of  the  receiver  whilst  the  spirit 
arose,  I  observed  that  it  catched  flame,  and  continued  burn- 
ing at  the  end  of  the  pipe,  though  you  could  not  discern  what 
fed  the  flame.  I  then  blew  it  out  and  lighted  it  again  several 
times ;  after  which  I  fixed  a  bladder,  squeezed  and  void  of 
air,  to  the  pipe  of  the  receiver.  The  oil  and  phlegm  descend- 
ed into  the  receiver,  but  the  spirit  still  ascending,  blew  up 
the  bladder.  I  then  filled  a  good  many  bladders  therewith, 
and  might  have  filled  an  inconceivable  number  more  ;  for  the 
spirit  continued  to  rise  for  several  hours,  and  filled  the  blad- 
ders almost  as  fast  as  a  man  could  have  blown  them  with  his 
mouth  ;  and  yet  the  quantity  of  coals  I  distilled  were  incon- 
siderable. 

"  I  kept  this  spirit  in  the  bladders  a  considerable  time,  and 
endeavored  several  ways  to  condense  it,  but  in  vain.  And 
when  I  had  a  mind  to  divert  strangers  or  friends,  I  have  fre- 
quently taken  one  of  these  bladders,  and  pricking  a  hole 
therein  with  a  pin,  and  compressing  gently  the  bladder  near 
the  flame  of  a  candle  till  it  once  took  fire,  it  would  then  con- 
tinue flaming  till  all  the  spirit  was  compressed  out  of  the 
bladder;   which  was  the   more  surprising  because   no  one 


Gas — Manufacture.     '  251 

could  descern  any  difference  in  the  appearance  between  these 
bladders  and  those  which  are  filled  with  common  air.''* 

It  is  evident  from  this  narrative,  related  with  so  much  sim- 
plicity, that  an  accident  which  happened  to  Mr.  Clayton's 
apparatus  was  the  means  of  leading  to  the  discovery  of  coal- 
gas  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  he  or  any  other  individual 
thought  of  applying  the  discovery  to  any  practical  purpose 
until  the  year  1792,  when  Mr.  Murdock,  who  then  resided 
at  Redruth,  in  Cornwall,  commenced  a  series  of  experiments 
upon  the  properties  of  the  gases  contained  in  different  sub- 
stances. In  the  course  of  his  researches  he  found  that  the 
gas  obtained  by  the  distillation  from  coal,  peat,  wood,  and 
other  inflammable  substances,  yielded  a  fine  bright  light  during 
its  combustion  ;  and  it  occured  to  him,  that  by  confining  it  in 
proper  vessels  and  afterward  expelling  it  through  pipes,  it 
might  be  employed  as  a  convenient  and  economical  substiute 
for  lamps  and  candles. 

Mr.  Murdoch's  attention  to  the  subject  having  been  inter- 
rupted for  some  time  by  his  professional  avocations,  he  re- 
sumed the  consideration  of  it  in  1797,  when  he  exhibited 
publicly  the  results  of  his  more  mature  plans  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  coal-gas.  The  following  year  (being  then  connected 
with  Messrs.  Boulton  and  Watt's  engineering  workshop),  he 
constructed  an  apparatus  at  the  Soho  foundery  for  lighting 
that  establishment,  with  suitable  arrangements  for  the  puri- 
fication of  the  gas ;  and  these  experiments.  Dr.  Henry  states, 
"  were  continued  with  occasional  interruptions  until  the  epoch 
of  the  peace  in  1802,  when  the  illumination  of  the  Soho  man- 
ufactory afforded  an  opportunity  of  making  a  public  display 
of  the  new  lights  ;  and  they  were  made  to  constitute  a  prin- 
cipal feature  in  that  exhibition." 

In  this  brief  sketch  of  the  progress  of  gas-lighting,  it  may 
be  noticed  that  the  Lyceum  theater  in  London  was  lighted  with 
gas  in  the  course  of  the  years  1803-4,  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Winsor,  who  is  entitled  to  no  small  commendation  for  the 
warm  interest  which  he  took  in  drawing  the  public  attention  to 
the  subject ;  and  in  1804-5  Mr.  Murdoch  had  an  opportunity 
of  carrying  his  plans  into  effect  on  a  still  larger  scale,  by  means 
of  the  apparatus  erected  under  his  superintendence,  in  the  ex- 

*  Mr.  Clayton  also  alludes  to  the  discovery  of  the  gas  which  he  obtained 
from  coal,  in  a  letter  to  the  Royal  Society,  dated  May  12,  1688. 


252  Five  Black  Arts. 

tensive  cotton  mills  of  Messrs.  Philips  and  Son  of  Manches- 
ter. 

It  has  been  alleged  that  gas-lights  were  used  in  France 
before  they  were  known  in  this  country ;  but  as  the  earliest 
exhibition  of  these  lights,  on  which  the  claim  of  priority  of 
discovery  is  founded,  took  place  at  Paris  in  1802,  it  is  evi- 
dent, from  the  foregoing  statements,  that  the  exhibition  allu- 
ded to  was  ten  years  subsequent  to  the  first  experiments  of 
Mr.  Murdoch  on  the  subject. 

The  practicability  of  lighting  by  means  of  coal-gas  having 
been  demonstrated  by  Mr.  Murdoch,  a  number  of  scientific 
men  applied  their  talents  to  the  further  development  of  the 
art.  Dr.  Henry,  the  celebrated  chemist,  lectured  on  the 
subject  in  1804  and  1805,  and  furnished  many  hints  for  the 
improvement  of  the  manufacture.  Mr.  Clegg,  an  engineer 
in  the  employment  of  Boulton  and  Watt,  was  a  worthy  suc- 
cessor of  Murdoch,  and  for  many  years  was  the  most  eminent 
gas-engineer  of  this  country.  A  good  deal  of  the  machinery 
of  the  gas-house  in  its  present  form  was  contrived  by  Mr. 
Clegg,  and  to  him  also  we  are  indebted  for  the  ingenious  wet 
gas-meter.  In  1813  Westminster  bridge  was  first  lighted  with 
gas,  and  in  the  following  year  the  streets  of  Westminster 
were  thus  lighted,  and  in  1816  gas  became  common  in  Lon- 
don. So  rapid  was  the  progress  of  this  new  mode  of  illumi- 
nation, that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  after  it  was  first  in- 
troduced, it  was  adopted  by  all  the  principal  towns  in  the 
kingdom,  for  lighting  streets  as  well  as  shops  and  public  edi- 
fices. In  private  houses  it  found  its  way  more  slowly,  partly 
from  an  apprehension,  not  entirely  groundless,  of  the  danger 
attending  the  use  of  it ;  and  partly,  from  the  annoyance 
which  was  experienced  in  many  cases,  through  the  careless 
and  imperfect  manner  in  which  the  service-pipes  were  at  first 
fitted  up.  These  inconveniences  have  been  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, if  not  wholly,  removed  by  a  more  enlarged  knowledge 
of  the  management  of  gas ;  and  at  present  there  are  few 
private  houses  in  large  towns  which  are  not  either  partially 
or  entirely  lighted  up  by  it.  As  the  demand  for  gas  in- 
creased, various  improvements  were  from  time  to  time  intro- 
duced both  in  the  mechanical  arrangements,  and  in  the  chem- 
ical operations  of  the  manufacture.  The  rapid  increase  in 
the  population  of  the  metropolis,  and  of  all  large  towns,  has 


Gas— Manufactube.  253 

naturally  led  to  an  increased  consumption  of  gas,  and  the 
application  of  gas  to  the  purposes  of  warming  and  cooking 
has  also  further  increased  the  demand  for  it.  Hence  it  has 
been  not  only  necessary  that  new  gas-works  should  be  erect- 
ed, for  the  supply  of  new  districts,  but  that  the  resources  of 
old  works  should  be  enlarged.  It  is  only  a  few  years  ago 
that  a  gas-holder  capable  of  storing  250,000  cubic  feet  of 
gas  was  regarded  as  of  enormous  size ;  at  the  present  time, 
gas-holders  are  made  of  double  that  capacity,  and  we  occa- 
sionally hear  of  them  of  the  capacity  of  upward  of  a  million 
cubic  feet.  There  is  one  such  at  Philadelphia ;  it  is  140 
feet  in  diameter  and  70  feet  in  height.  Nor  will  such  di- 
mensions as  these  be  regarded  as  superfluous  when  it  is  stated 
that  some  of  the  large  metropolitan  works  send  out  each  from 
a  million  to  a  million  and  a  half  cubic  feet  of  gas  in  one  night 
in  mid-winter.*  The  Westminster  gas-works  alone  are  ac- 
customed to  supply  as  much  as  five  millions  cubic  feet  of  gas 
in  one  night  from  their  three  stations. 

Of  ike  Site  and  general  Arrangement  of  the  Apparatus  for 
the  Production  and  Purification  of  Coal-Gas, 

In  describing  the  site  and  general  arrangements  of  a  gas 
establishment,  it  is  not  easy  to  give  directions  respecting 
points  which  must  be  regulated  in  every  case  by  circumstan- 
ces of  a  local  nature  ;  but  when  a  choice  of  ground  is  in  our 
power,  a  spot  ought  to  be  selected  having  a  central  situation 

*  A  few  years  ago  Mr.  Hume,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  moved  for  a 
return,  which  has  been  published  under  the  following  title  : — "  Return  or 
statement  from  every  gas  company  established  by  act  of  parliament  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  stating  the  several  acts  of  parliament  under  which  estab- 
lished, the  rates  per  1000  cubic  feet  at  which  each  company  or  corporation 
have  supplied  gas  in  each  of  the  three  years  since  1846  to  1849,  and  the 
average  prices  of  the  coals  used  by  the  company  in  each  year  for  the  same 
period  ;  also  stating  the  amount  of  fixed  capital  invested  by  each  gas  com- 
pany, and  the  rate  per  cent,  of  dividend  to  the  shareholders  or  proprietors 
on  their  shares  in  each  year  since  that  date  (in  continuation  of  Parliament- 
ary Paper  No.  734  of  Session  1847)."  It  appears  from  this  document  that 
the  fifteen  companies  in  London  charged  at  the  rate  of  6s.  per  1000  cubic 
feet  of  gas,  with  the  exception  of  the  City  of  London  Company,  which 
charged  only  4s.  with  coals  at  15s.  9d.  per  ton.  The  highest  rate  is  10s. 
per  1000  feet,  charged  at  Inverness,  with  coals  at  24s.  4c?.  per  ton.  Bury 
St.  Edmunds  charged  Ss.  id.,  with  coals  at  10s.  6d.  Birmingham  has  rates 
of  6s.  and  3«.  i^d.,  with  coals  at  15s.  per  ton. 


254  Five  Black  Arts. 

•with  regard  to  the  buildings,  streets,  etc.,  which  are  to  be 
supphed  with  light,  and  standing  as  nearly  as  possible  on  a 
medium  level  with  them.  When  the  manufactory  is  placed 
considerably  below  that  level,  the  gas  is  apt  to  be  propelled 
with  too  much  velocity  through  the  burners ;  and  when 
above  it,  an  opposite  inconvenience  is  experienced,  the  gas 
being  in  that  case  necessarily  subjected  to  an  extra  pressure, 
by  which  the  chance  of  its  escape  through  any  imperfection 
of  the  pipes  is  proportionally  increased.  Of  the  two  evils, 
therefore,  the  least  objectionable  is  that  in  which  the  situa- 
tion of  a  gas-work  is  below  the  mean  level  of  the  streets. 

But  besides  the  conditions  favorable  to  an  equable  and  uni- 
form distribution  of  the  gas  at  the  different  points  to  which 
it  may  be  conducted,  there  are  other  considerations  scarcely 
less  important,  which  in  selecting  a  proper  site  for  the  erection 
of  the  establishment  ought  not  to  be  disregarded.  Among  these 
may  be  reckoned  a  regular  supply  of  water  for  the  various 
manipulations  of  the  work ;  and  facility  of  access  for  the 
delivery  of  coal  and  the  removal  of  the  coke,  tar  and  other  pro- 
ducts of  the  distillation.  Railways  are  now  so  common  that 
they  are  often  as  valuable  to  a  gas-work  as  the  vicinity  of 
navigable  water.  In  the  Central  Gas-consumer's  works  at 
Bow  Common,  which  were  laid  out  under  the  skillful  scientific 
direction  of  Mr.  Croll,  a  branch  railway  is  connected  with 
the  lines  which  supply  the  coal,  and  is  actually  continued 
into  the  retort-house,  so  that  the  coal  wagons  only  arrive  at 
their  final  destination  at  the  mouths  of  the  retorts  which  are 
to  be  fed.  But  in  fixing  the  situation  of  an  estabhshment 
which  is  professedly  erected  for  the  public  benefit,  the  comfort 
or  the  interest  of  individuals  ought  not  to  be  entirely  over- 
looked ;  for  although  a  gas-work  may  not  prove,  under  proper 
management,  a  nuisance,  it  can  never  be  considered  to  be 
any  advantage  to  the  neighborhood  in  which  it  is  placed. 

The  apparatus  for  the  production  and  purification  of  coal- 
gas  consists,  in  the  first  place,  of  suitable  vessels  for  decom- 
posing by  heat  the  coal  from  which  the  gas  is  to  be  procured  ; 
secondly,  of  a  series  of  pipes  for  conveying  off"  the  gas,  and 
conducting  it  into  proper  receptacles,  where  it  may  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  grosser  products,  which  tend  to  impair  the 
brilliancy  of  the  light ;  thirdly,  of  the  condensing  apparatus, 
for  removing  more  effectually  the  tar  and  other  condensable 


Gas — Manufacture.  255 

fiUDstances  that  come  over  with  the  gas  ;  fourthly,  of  the  pu- 
rifying apparatus,  for  abstracting  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
carbonic  acid,  etc.,  by  which  the  gas  is  contaminated,  and 
which  if  allowed  to  remain,  would  be  injurious  to  the  gas-fit- 
tings, to  the  books  and  furniture  of  rooms,  or  to  the  health 
of  the  consumer;  and,  fifthly,  of  the  gasometer  or  gas-holder, 
with  its  tank,  into  which  the  gas  is  finally  received  in  a  puri- 
fied state. 

Of  the  Retorts^  or  Vessels  for  decomposing  the  Coal. 

The  vessels  employed  for  the  decomposition  of  coal  and 
other  substances  capable  of  yielding  carburetted  hydrogen, 
by  their  destructive  distillation,  are  formed  of  cast-iron,  of 
clay,  of  brick,  or  of  wrought  iron,  and  are  termed  retorts. 
Various  shapes  have  been  adopted  in  the  construction  of  these 
vessels ;  nor  have  their  forms  been  more  varied  than  the 
modes  in  which  they  have  been  disposed  in  the  furnaces 
erected  for  their  reception.  In  many  instances  they  have 
been  constructed  of  a  cylindrical  shape,  varying  in  length 
and  diameter.  Those  first  employed  were  placed  with  their 
axis  in  a  vertical  direction  ;  but  experience  soon  showed  that 
this  position  was  extremely  inconvenient,  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  which  it  occasioned  in  removing  the  coke,  and  other 
residuary  matters,  after  the  coal  had  been  carbonized.  At- 
tempts were  made  to  remedy  this  inconvenience,  by  enlarging 
the  size  of  the  retort,  and  introducing  the  coal  inclosed  in  a 
proper  grating  of  iron,  having  the  form  of  a  cage.  The  in- 
creased dimensions  of  the  retort,  from  which  the  principal 
advantage  to  be  derived  from  this  arrangement  was  expected, 
were  found,  however,  to  present  great  obstacles  to  the  com- 
plete carbonization  of  the  coal ;  for  although  the  disengage- 
ment of  gas  during  the  first  stages  of  the  process  was  suffi- 
ciently copious,  it  diminished  rapidly  the  longer  the  distillation 
was  continued,  in  consequence  of  a  crust  of  coke  being  formed 
next  to  the  heated  metal,  which  not  only  opposed  the  trans- 
mission of  the  heat  to  the  internal  mass  of  coal,  but  gradually 
prevented,  by  its  accumulation,  the  extrication  of  the  gas  from 
the  undecomposed  portion  of  it. 

The  retorts  were,  therefore,  next  placed  in  a  horizontal 
position,  as  being  not  only  more  favorable  to  the  most  econom- 


256  Five  Black  Arts. 

ical  distribution  of  the  heat,  but  better  adapted  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  coal,  and  the  subsequent  removal  of  the  coke, 
after  the  carbonization  was  carried  to  a  due  extent.  At  first 
the  heat  was  applied  directly  to  the  lower  part  of  the  retort, 
but  it  was  soon  observed  that  the  high  temperature  to  which 
it  was  necessary  to  expose  it,  for  the  perfect  decomposition  of 
the  coal,  proved  destructive  to  it,  and  rendered  it  useless  long 
before  the  upper  part  had  sustained  much  injury.  The  next 
improvement  was,  accordingly,  to  interpose  an  arch  of  brick- 
work between  it  and  the  furnace,  and  to  compensate  for  the 
diminished  intensity  of  the  heat  by  a  more  diffused  distribu- 
tion of  it  over  the  surface  of  the  retort.  This  was  effected 
by  causing  the  flue  of  the  furnace  to  return  toward  the  mouth 
of  the  retort,  and  again  conducting  it  in  an  opposite  direction, 
till  the  heated  air  finally  escaped  into  the  chimmey. 

This  arrangement  continued  for  a  long  time  in  use,  and 
seemed  to  admit  of  little  improvement,  unless  with  respect  to 
the  shape  and  dimensions  of  the  retorts.  The  cylindrical 
form  has  the  advantage  of  possessing  great  durability,  but 
it  is  not  so  well  fitted  for  rapid  decomposition  of  the  coal  (on 
which  depends  much  of  the  good  qualities  of  the  gas)  as 
the  elliptical  shape.  Flat-bottomed  or  D-shaped  retorts 
have  also  been  long  in  use  :  the  small  London  D  is  about  12 
inches  wide  by  12|  inches  deep,  while  the  York  D  varies 
from  20  to  30  inches  in  width,  and  from  9  to  14  inches  in 
height.  Retorts  are  also  made  of  a  rectangular  section,  with 
the  corners  rounded  and  the  roof  arched.  Elliptical  retorts 
are  varied  into  what  are  called  ear-shaped  or  kidney- shaped^ 
and  it  is  not  unusual  to  set  retorts  of  different  forms  in  the 
same  bench,  for  the  convenience  of  filling  up  the  branches  of 
the  arch  which  incloses  them.  The  length  of  retorts  former- 
ly varied  from  6  to  9  feet ;  they  are  now  in  some  cases  made 
19 J  feet  in  length  and  12J  inches  in  internal  diameter,  and 
are  charged  at  both  ends. 

Iron  retorts  of  from  6  to  9  feet  in  length  carry  a  charge 
of  from  120  to  200  lbs.  of  coal,  which  is  usually  renewed 
every  six  hours.  Instead  of  the  old  method  of  charging  with 
the  shovel,  which  occupies  at  least  half  an  hour,  and  entailed 
a  great  loss  of  gas,  the  whole  charge  is  now  deposited  in  an 
iron  scoop,  with  a  cross  handle  at  the  end,  and  it  is  lifted  by 
three  men,  pushed  into  the  retort,  turned  over,  and  the  whole 


Gas — Manufacture.  257 

f 

charge  deposited  at  once,  a  contrivance  which  does  not  occupy 
more  than  30  or  40  seconds.  Indeed  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
a  bench  of  7  retorts  to  be  emptied  ?.nd  recharged  in  the  brief 
space  of  20  minutes.  When  square-backed  retorts  are  used, 
the  backs  are  apt  to  wear  much  more  quickly  than  any  other 
part,  in  consequence  of  the  fierce  heat  which  plays  upon  them; 
it  is  therefore  sometimes  usual  to  throw  in  a  few  shovelfuls 
of  coal  to  the  extreme  end  before  depositing  the  charge  with 
the  scoop.  This  occupies  more  time  in  charging,  but  it  has 
the  effect  of  preserving  the  backs.  The  objection  does  not 
apply  to  retorts  with  circular  ends. 

Every  retort  is  furnished  with  a  separate  mouth-piece, 
usually  of  cast-iron,  with  a  socket  for  receiving  the  stand- 
pipe,  and  there  is  a  movable  lid  attached  to  the  mouth,  to- 
gether with  an  ear-box  cast  on  each  side  of  the  retort  for  re- 
ceiving the  ears  which  support  the  lid.  The  ears  hold  a 
crossbar  through  which  is  passed  a  screw  which  presses  on 
the  lid,  and  secures  it  to  the  mouth-piece.  That  part  of  the 
lid  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  edge  of  the  mouth-piece 
has  applied  to  it  a  lute  of  lime  mortar  and  fire-clay,  and 
when  the  lid  is  screwed  up,  a  portion  of  this  lute  oozes  out 
round  the  edges  and  forms  a  gas-tight  joint. 

In  some  cases  the  screw  is  got  rid  of  by  a  more  expeditious 
contrivance,  in  which  the  ears  support  an  axis,  which  carries 
a  lever  formed  at  one  end  into  a  sort  of  cam,  and  bearing  at 
the  other  end  a  ball  of  cast-iron  about  4  inches  in  diameter. 
On  lowering  this  ball  the  cam  presses  with  great  force  against 
the  back  of  the  lid,  and  holds  it  securely  ;  and  if  more  force 
be  required,  a  weight  can  be  attached  to  the  iron  ball. 

In  attaching  a  mouth-piece  to  a  clay  retort,  the  end  is 
notched  with  grooves  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  binding 
cement  more  securely.  The  mouth-piece  is  attached  by 
means  of  bolts  with  T  heads  let  into  the  body  of  the  retort 
Iron  cement  is  used,  in  which  fire-clay  takes  the  place  of 
sulphur ;  this  being  spread  over  the  joint,  the  mouth-piece  is 
attached  and  screwed  up. 

The  temperature  best  suited  for  the  production  of  gas  from 

coal,  being  what  the  workmen  term  a  bright  red,  was  found 

to  be  very  destructive  to  the  retorts  when  they  were  exposed 

to  the  direct  action  of  the  fuel ;  and  accordingly  means  were 

17 


258  Five  Black  Arts. 

employed  to  protect  them  from  the  rapid  oxidation  which  they 
suffered  under  these  circumstances,  by  interposing  between 
them  and  the  furnace  a  partition  of  fire  tiles  or  arched  bricks, 
with  side  flues  for  the  admission  of  the  heated  air. 

With  the  view  of  occupying  less  room,  and  saving  the  ex- 
pense of  fuel,  several  retorts  are  sometimes  set  together  in 
an  oven  of  brickwork,  and  heated  by  a  smaller  number  of  fur- 
naces than  there  are  retorts.  By  this  arrangement  the  fuel 
is  certainly  economized,  but  the  plan  is  liable  to  the  objection, 
that  when  any  one  of  the  retorts  is  worn  out,  those  connect- 
ed with  it  cannot  be  used  till  the  faulty  one  is  replaced  ;  and 
though  various  expedients  have  been  proposed  for  obviating 
that  inconvenience,  none  of  them  can  be  said  to  have  effect- 
ually answered  the  purpose. 

The  fuel  required  for  carbonizing  a  given  quantity  of  coal 
may  be  stated  to  be,  in  general,  from  one-third  to  one-fourth 
of  its  weight  for  Newcastle  coal.  It  is  stated,  that  under 
Mr.  CroU's  method  of  setting,  the  carbonization  is  carried  on 
by  the  combustion  of  only  12  per  cent,  of  fuel,  or  that  100 
tons  of  coal  are  carbonized  by  12  tons  of  coke. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  render  the  retorts 
more  independent  of  the  laborers.  In  Mr.  Brunton's  retort, 
a  hopper  containing  the  charge  of  coal  is  attached  to  the 
mouth-piece.  The  charge  is  introduced  by  removing  a  slide, 
and  a  piston  is  then  advanced  for  the  purpose  of  pushing  for- 
ward the  coal,  and  ejecting  the  coke,  the  latter  falling  through 
a  shoot  at  the  further  end  of  the  retort,  and  thence  into  a 
cistern  of  water  into  which  the  lower  end  of  the  shoot  dips. 
This  retort  is  not  of  equal  section  throughout :  it  is  15  inches 
in  diameter  at  'the  mouth,  and  21  inches  at  the  other  end, 
the  length  being  4J  feet.  The  advantages  of  this  arrange- 
ment, independently  of  the  saving  of  labor,  are  said  to  be 
an  increased  production  of  gas,  and  a  consequent  diminution 
in  the  amount  of  tar,  naptha,  and  ammoniacal  liquor,  this  di- 
minution being  stated  at  50  per  cent,  less  than  the  ordinary 
yield  of  those  secondary  products.  Moreover,  a  good  deal 
of  bituminous  vapor,  and  minutely  divided  carbon,  which, 
under  the  usual  arrangement,  go  to  swell  the  increase  of  tar, 
become  decomposed  under  the  higher  temperature  of  Mr. 
Brunton's  retorts  bypassing  over  the  red-hot  coke,  and  form- 
ing illuminating  gas.     Indeed,  it  is  now  generally  admitted 


Gas — Manufacture.  259 

as  an  axiom  in  gas-making,  that  the  most  productive  yield  of 
gas  is  under  a  high  temperature ;  for  it  is  possible  under  low 
heats  to  distil  off  the  volatile  parts  of  the  coal  as  bituminous 
vapor  only,  without  any  production  of  carburetted  hydrogen 
gas.  By  exposing  the  coal  in  a  thin  layer  to  a  very  high  heat, 
the  distillation  is  effected  most  rapidly  and  most  profitably. 
Mr.  Cleircf  describes  a  retort  into  which  the  coal  is  introduced 

DO 

by  means  of  an  endless  web  formed  of  iron  plates,  each  2 
feet  long,  and  14  inches  wide,  and  linked  together  by  iron 
rods.  The  coal,  broken  small,  is  placed  in  a  hopper,  to  which 
is  attached  a  feeder  with  six  radial  projections.  Each  of  the 
six  partitions  thus  formed  supplies  sufficient  coal  to  cover  one 
plate  of  the  web,  with  about  120  cubic  inches  of  coal  to  the 
depth  of  f  ths  of  an  inch.  The  hopper,  which  contains  24 
hours'  charge  of  coal,  is  luted  after  each  charge.  The  end- 
less web  is  moved  by  passing  over  drums,  one  revolution  of 
which  every  15  minutes  conveys  the  web  through  the  retort, 
and  effects  the  distillation  of  the  coal.  The  coal  is  carried 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  web,  and  as  the  web  turns  over 
the  second  drum  the  coke  is  discharged  by  a  pipe  into  a  ves- 
sel below,  and  the  empty  portion  of  the  web  returns  to  the 
hopper,  and  passing  over  the  surface  of  the  first  drum  re- 
ceives another  charge.  The  charge  is  so  regulated,  that  about 
100  square  inches  of  heated  surface  in  the  retort  is  allowed 
for  every  pound  of  coal,  which  is  said  to  yield  5*36  cubic  feet 
of  gas,  or  12,000  cubic  feet  per  ton  of  VVallsend  coal.  The 
charge  for  each  retort  is  about  18  cwt.  of  coal  for  24  hours,  or 
about  double  the  quantity  under  the  old  plan  in  retorts  of 
similar  dimensions.  The  coke  is  also  said  to  be  in  much 
greater  quantity.  In  the  course  of  time  the  plates  of  the 
iron  web  become  converted  into  steel,  the  value  of  which  is 
sufficient  for  the  purchase  of  a  new  web.  Mr.  Lowe  has  also 
introduced  an  arrangement  for  increasing  the  yield  of  gas  by 
making  the  products  of  a  new  change  pass  over  the  portion 
of  the  retort  which  is  already  at  a  red  heat.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  reciprocating  retort,  as  it  is  called,  is  made  of  thrice 
the  usual  length,  and  is  charged  at  both  ends ;  but  the  dip 
pipe  at  one  end  is  made  to  enter  to  a  greater  depth  into  the 
tar  of  the  hydraulic  main  than  at  the  other  end;  so  that 
supposing  both  the  dip  pipes  to  be  open,  the  products  of  dis- 
tillation will  of  course  be  discharged  into  the  main  by  the 


260  Five  Black  Arts. 

shorter  pipe,  where  there  is  less  pressure  to  be  overcome. 
This  pipe,  however,  is  furnished  with  a  cup-valve,  which  can 
be  closed  at  pleasure ;  and  when  so  closed,  the  products  of 
distillation  must  escape  by  the  longer  dip-pipe.  When  the 
charge  has  been  half  worked  off  in  one-half  of  the  retort,  a 
fresh  charge  is  introduced  into  the  other  half,  and  the  products 
of  distillation  of  the  new  charge  are  made  to  pass  over  the 
incandescent  coal,  or  that  which  has  been  about  three  or  four 
hours  under  distillation.  This  is  readil}^  effected  by  closing 
or  opening  the  shorter  dip-pipe,  according  to  the  end  of  the 
retort  last  charged.  The  principle  of  the  reciprocating  re 
tort  has  been  adopted  at  different  works,  with  variations  in 
the  practical  details. 

Of  late  years  clay  retorts  have  been  largely  introduced 
into  gas  works,  and  they  are  said  to  be  more  durable,  and 
to  stand  a  higher  temperature  than  iron  retorts,  the  latter 
working  best  at  a  cherry-red  heat,  and  the  former  at  a  white 
heat,  which  is  more  favorable  to  the  increased  production  of 
gas  than  the  lower  temperature.  It  is  stated,  that  where  a 
clay  retort  has  yielded  a  million  and  a  half  cubic  feet  of  gas, 
an  iron  one  has  furnished  only  800,000  cubic  feet.  Clay  re- 
torts appear,  from  their  greater  porosity  to  leak  more  than  iron 
ones ;  but  after  working  some  months,  the  pores  become 
clogged  with  carbon,  and  the  porosity  is  thus  greatly  dimin- 
ished, and  the  leakage  is  even  less  than  in  iron  retorts  work- 
ing under  the  same  pressure.*  As  the  demand  for  clay 
retorts  increased,  the  manufacture  of  them  improved,  an 
example  of  which  improvement  is  well  illustrated  in  the  case 
of  the  retorts  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  exhibited  by 
Messrs.  Cowen  of  Blaydon  Burn,  near  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
"When  this  firm  first  manufactured  retorts  about  twenty  years 

*  One  of  the  greatest  sources  of  loss  in  the  manufacture  of  gas  arises  from 
the  leakage,  not  only  of  the  retorts  and  other  apparatus  within  the  works, 
but  also  of  the  mains,  a  loss  amounting  to  from  10  to  30  and  upward  per 
cent.  Mr.  CroU  estimates  the  loss  at  one-sixth  of  the  gas  sent  out.  The 
porosity  of  cast-iron  pipes,  not  at  their  joints  merely,  but  throughout  their 
whole  length,  is  evident  from  the  saturation  of  the  soil  with  gas  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  mains.  Not  only  does  the  gas  escape  by  exos- 
mose  into  the  air,  but  by  the  reverse  process  of  endosmose,  air  enters  the 
pipes  in  some  cases,  as  Prof.  Graham  has  found,  to  ihe  extent  of  25  per 
cent.  Prof.  Brande  thinks  that  the  fetid  odor  of  the  soil  in  contact  with 
the  gas  mains  is  due  to  the  exosraose  of  ammonia,  rather  than  of  tar  and 
naptha,  to  which  the  ill  odor  is  generally  attributed. 


Gas — Manutacturb. 

ago,  each  retort  was  made  in  ten  pieces,  which  nnmher  was 
reduced  to  four,  then  to  three,  and  then  to  two  ;  and  in  1844 
the  retort  was  made  complete  in  one  piece  of  the  dimensions 
of  10  feet  in  length,  and  3  feet  in  internal  width.  The  clay 
of  which  these  retorts  are  manufactured  is  exposed  to  the 
weather  for  some  years,  and  is  frequently  turned  over,  and 
the  fragments  of  fossils  picked  out,  by  which  means  most  of 
the  iron  is  got  rid  of,  which  in  other  fire-clays  is  so  injurious. 
Some  of  these  retorts  are  stated  to  have  continued  in  active 
use  for  38  months,  thus  exhibiting  four  times  the  durability 
of  iron  ones. 

Brick  retorts,  or  rather  ovens,  have  also  been  introduced, 
and  are  said  to  be  very  durable,  and  to  work  satisfactorily. 
In  one  case  the  charge  is  5  or  6  cwt.  of  coal  every  twelve 
hours,  and  the  yield  9000  cubic  feet  of  gas  for  one  ton  of 
Welsh  coal,  and  from  10,000  to  12,000  cubic  feet  from  one 
ton  of  Newcastle  coal.  The  fuel  required  for  the  carboniza- 
tion of  the  coal  is  said  to  be  unusually  large.  Wrought-iron 
retorts,  made  of  thick  boiler  plates  firmly  riveted  together, 
have  also  been  tried  to  a  limited  extent. 

When  clay  retorts  came  into  general  use,  the  circumstance 
that  they  required  a  much  higher  heat  than  iron  retorts  sug- 
gested the  economical  plan  of  heating  the  clay  retorts  by  the 
direct  action  of  the  furnace,  and  arranging  the  iron  retorts 
in  a  separate  oven,  heated  by  the  same  furnace,  or  within  a 
system  of  return  flues,  where  they  would  be  submitted  to  a 
less  intense  heat.  By  this  means  Mr.  CroU  has  found,  that 
with  two  furnace  grates  of  252  square  inches  in  each,  he  has 
been  able  to  carbonize  in  24  hours  five  tons  of  coal  in  the 
clay  retorts  of  one  bench,  and  three  tons  and  a  half  in  the 
iron  retorts  of  the  same  bench,  with  such  an  economy  of  fuel, 
that  only  twelve  per  cent,  of  all  the  coke  made  is  required  for 
the  furnaces  ;  whereas,  in  most  of  the  London  works,  nearly 
one-third  of  the  coke  made  is  consumed  in  heating-  the  re- 
torts. 

The  quantity  of  gas  produced  during  the  time  the  coal  is 
undergoing  decomposition  is  extremely  variable.  From  a 
small  retort,  exposed  for  eighty-five  minutes  to  a  bright  red 
heat,  which  was  kept  up  with  the  utmost  possible  uniformity, 
the  following  results  were  obtained  from  eight  pounds  of  the 
■Wemyss  coal : 


262  Five  Black  Arts. 

Cub.  Ft.    Cub.  .In. 

In  1st  ten  minutes 6  235 

2d          do           8  980 

3d          do           8  1254 

4th        do          5  784 

5th        do           4  1450 

6th        do           3  313 

Last  twenty-five  minutes 6  lfi60 

43       1492 

At  the  time  the  process  was  terminated  the  extraction  of 
aeriform  matter  had  nearly  ceased,  so  that  the  quantity  of 
gas  yielded  by  a  pound  of  the  coal  was  about  five  and  a  half 
cubic  feet.  The  same  coal  carbonized  on  the  large  scale 
yielded  when  the  process  was  carried  on  for  four  hours,  at 
the  rate  of  four  and  one-third  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  pound. 
The  weight  of  the  coke  in  the  above  experiment  was  32,050 
grains  ;  and  as  the  weight  of  the  gas,  the  specific  gravity  of 
which  was  '6d,  must  have  been  15,026  grains,  the  tar  and 
other  residuary  products,  including  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
abstracted  by  the  process  of  purification,  must  have  amounted 
to  8924  grains. 

When  the  decomposition  is  effected  on  the  large  scale,  the 
quantity  of  gas  is  found  to  vary  with  the  quality  of  the  coal, 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  operation  is  conducted.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Peckston,  a  chaldron  of  Newcastle  Wallsend 
coal  yields  10,000  cubic  feet,  being  at  the  rate  of  370J  cubic 
feet  per  cwt.  The  different  kinds  of  Newcastle  coal  yield 
from  8000  to  12,500  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  ton  ;  the  parrot 
or  cannel  coals  furnish  from  9000  to  15,000  feet  per  ton,  the 
last  named  quantity  being  obtained  from  the  Boghead  cannel, 
in  which  case  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas  is  '752,  and  as 
much  as  866  avoirdupois  lbs.  of  gas  are  obtained  from  each 
ton  of  coal.  The  Wallsend  Newcastle,  known  as  Berwick 
and  Craister's,  only  yields  449  lbs.,  and  of  the  specific  grav- 
ity -470.  Of  the  Derbyshire,  Staffordshire,  Welsh,  and  other 
varieties  of  coal,  the  yield  varies  from  6500  to  about  11,000 
cubic  feet  of  gas  per  ton  of  coal.  So  that  under  the  best 
methods  of  working  it  is  of  great  importance  to  obtain  a  coal 
that  is  rich  in  bituminous  matter. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  any  thing  like  the 
above  quantities  of  gas  are  obtained  from  coal  in  the  practical 
working  of  it  in  the  gas-house.    The  manufacturer  is  exposed 


Gas — Manufacture.  263 

to  losses  from  a  variety  of  causes,  such  as  leakage,  as  already 
noticed,  and  also  from  the  tendency  of  the  carbon  of  the  gas, 
or  of  the  hydro-carburets  distilled  from  the  coal,  to  form  de- 
posits of  charcoal  which  may  attain  an  inch  or  more  in  thick- 
ness on  the  inner  surface  of  the  retorts,  not  only  producing 
a  loss  of  gas,  but  causing  the  retorts  to  burn  out  more  quickly, 
and  leading  to  expense  and  delay  in  removing  the  deposit. 
It  was  formerly  supposed  that  this  deposit  was  owing  to  the 
overheating  of  the  retort,  or  to  an  excess  of  heating  surface. 
It  was  found,  however,  by  Mr.  Grafton  that  the  pressure  to 
which  the  gas  is  subjected  in  the  retort  is  the  cause  of  the 
deposit.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark,  that  when  an 
elastic  body  is  generated  in  a  close  vessel,  the  pressure  which 
it  exerts  upon  such  vessel  depends  greatly  upon  the  resistance 
to  which  it  is  exposed  in  seeking  to  escape.  In  endeavoring 
to  force  its  way  by  the  dip-pipe  through  several  inches  of  tar 
into  the  hydraulic  main,  the  resistance  thus  offered  produces 
a  considerable  pressure  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  retorts. 
The  passage  of  the  gas  through  the  washing  vessels  and  lime 
purifiers  increases  this  pressure,  thereby  promoting  the  deposit 
complained  of,  and  causing  an  increased  production  of  tar  at 
the  expense  of  the  gas.  Mr.  Grafton  found  that  by  working 
the  retorts  under  a  pressure  of  14  inches  of  water,  a  deposit 
of  carbon  one  inch  in  thickness  was  formed  within  the  retorts 
in  one  week,  and  in  the  course  of  two  months  it  filled  up  nearly 
one-fourth  of  the  retort.  On  working  the  retorts  with  no 
other  pressure  than  that  produced  by  the  insertion  of  the 
dip-pipe  half  an  inch  into  the  fluid  of  the  hydraulic  main, 
little  or  no  deposit  took  place  in  the  retorts  in  four  months 
with  the  same  kind  of  coal.  It  is  now  common  at  many 
gas-works  to  introduce  some  kind  of  pumping  apparatus, 
known  under  the  name  of  the  exhauster  or  extractor^  between 
the  hydraulic  main  and  the  condenser,  or  between  this  and 
the  lime  purifiers,  by  which  means  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
within  the  retorts  can  be  reduced  to  any  amount.  It  is, 
however,  found  desirable  not  to  carry  this  reduction  too  far, 
lest  atmospheric  air  should  find  its  way  into  the  retorts,  and 
thus  form  an  explosive  mixture  with  the  gas. 

The  quality  of  the  gas  yielded  by  coal  varies  greatly  at 
different  periods  of  the  carbonizing  process.  The  first  pro- 
ducts, when  the  coal  has  not  been  previously  well  dried,  con- 


264  Five  Black  Arts. 

sist  almost  entirely  of  aqueous  vapor  and  carbonic  acid ;  these 
are  succeeded  by  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  olefiant  gas,  and 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  gradually  diminish  in  quantity 
till  toward  the  close  of  the  process,  when  almost  the  only  pro- 
ducts are  carbonic  oxide  and  hydrogen.  Hence,  if  the  pro- 
cess be  carried  on  too  long,  the  gases  obtained  in  the  latter 
stages  of  it  will  not  only  be  useless  for  the  purpose  of  yielding 
light,  but  the  fuel  employed  for  their  production  will  be  ex- 
pended in  wasting  the  retorts  to  produce  substances  which 
are  calculated  to  impair  the  illuminating  power  of  the  gases 
with  which  they  are  mixed.  In  the  case  of  cannel  coal,  the 
interval  between  the  charges  of  the  retorts  should  not  exceed 
three  and  a  half  or  four  hours ;  nor  in  the  case  of  the  New- 
castle coal,  which  is  not  so  easily  decomposed,  ought  that  in- 
terval to  extend  beyond  six  hours. 

The  Condensing  Main  and  Dip  Pipes, 

From  the  retorts  the  gas,  after  its  production,  ascends  by 
means  of  pipes,  called  stand-pipes,  into  what  is  termed  the 
condensing  main,  which  is  a  large  cast-iron  pipe,  about  twelve 
or  fifteen  inches  in  diameter,  placed  in  a  horizontal  position, 
and  supported  by  columns  in  front  of  the  brickwork  which 
contains  the  retorts.  Wrought-iron  hydraulic  mains  are  now 
coming  into  use,  and  are  preferable  on  account  of  their  su- 
perior lightness  and  strength.  This  part  of  a  gas  apparatus 
is  intended  to  serve  a  twofold  purpose  :  First,  to  condense 
the  tar  and  grosser  products  of  distillation ;  and,  secondly, 
to  allow  each  of  the  retorts  to  be  charged  singly  without  per- 
mitting the  gas  produced  from  the  rest,  at  the  time  that  op- 
eration is  going  on,  to  make  its  escape.  To  accomplish  these 
objects,  one  end  of  the  condensing  main  is  closed  by  a  flanch  ; 
and  the  other,  where  it  is  connected  with  the  pipes  for  con- 
ducting the  gas  toward  the  tar  vessel  and  purifying  apparatus, 
has,  crossing  it,  in  the  inside,  a  semi-flanch  or  partition,  oc- 
cupying the  lower  half  of  the  area  of  the  section,  by  which 
the  condensing  vessel  is  always  kept  half  full  of  liquid  matter. 

The  stand-pipes  are  connected  by  a  flanch  with  a  branch- 
pipe  rising  from  the  upper  side  of  the  condensing  main ;  and 
as  the  lower  end  of  it  dips  about  two  inches  below  the  level 
of  the  liquid  matter,  it  is  evident  that  no  gas  can  return  and 


-AS — Manufacture. 

escape,  when  the  mouth-piece  of  the  retort  is  removed,  until 
it  has  forced  the  liquid  matter  over  the  bend,  a  result  which 
is  easily  prevented  by  making  it  of  a  suitable  length.  The 
upper  part  of  the  branch  of  the  dip-pipe  is  generally  furnished 
with  a  ground  plug  to  allow  the  removal  of  the  tarry  matter, 
which  is  apt  to  accumulate  in  a  concrete  state  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  pipe  where  it  is  nearest  the  furnace.  The  dip- 
pipes  vary  in  diameter  from  3  J  to  4  inches. 

Of  the  Tar  Apparatus. 

After  emerging  from  the  lower  end  of  the  dip-pipe,  the  gas, 
now  bereft  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  vapor  of  water, 
tar,  and  oleaginous  matter,  which  ascends  with  it  from  the 
retort,  is  conveyed  by  pipes,  for  the  purpose  of  being  com- 
pletely freed  from  these  impurities,  into  contrivances  where  a 
more  perfect  condensation  takes  place.  As  the  subsequent 
purification  of  the  gas  depends,  in  no  small  degree,  upon  the 
perfect  separation  of  the  tar  and  other  condensable  products, 
by  which  it  is  accompanied,  the  construction  of  the  vessels 
best  calculated  for  attaining  that  end  is  a  matter  of  the  ut- 
most importance  ;  and  indeed  it  may  be  justly  affirmed,  that 
unless  that  separation  be  effectually  accomplished,  the  action 
of  the  chemical  agents  to  which  the  gas  is  afterward  exposed, 
must  be  limited  and  imperfect. 

The  first  contrivances  employed  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
densation were  all  constructed  on  the  supposition  that  the 
object  would  be  best  attained  by  causing  the  gas  to  travel 
through  a  great  extent  of  pipes,  surrounded  by  cold  water, 
and  winding  through  it  like  the  worm  of  a  still,  or  ascending 
upward  and  downward  in  a  circuitous  manner.  An  improve- 
ment on  this  form  of  condenser,  and  the  one  now  in  general 
use,  consists  of  a  series  of  upright  pipes  connected  in  pairs 
at  the  top  by  semi-  circular  pipes,  and  terminating  at  the  bot- 
tom in  a  trough  containing  water,  and  divided  by  means  of 
partitions  in  such  a  way  that  as  the  gas  enters  the  trough 
from  one  pipe  it  passes  up  the  next  pipe  and  down  into  the 
next  partition,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  condenser.  The 
cooling  power  of  this  air-condenser,  as  it  is  called,  is  some- 
times assisted  by  allowing  cold  water  to  trickle  over  the  outer 
surface  of  the  pipes.     In  passing  through  these  pipes  the  gas 


266  Five  Black  Arts. 

is  considerably  reduced  in  temperature,  and  the  tar- and  am- 
moniacal  liquor  condense,  the  tar  subsiding  to  the  bottom, 
and  the  ammoniacal  liquor  floating  on  the  surface.  In  the 
course  of  time  the  water  in  the  trough  is  entirely  displaced 
by  these  two  gaseous  products,  and  as  these  accumulate  they 
pass  off  into  a  tar-tank,  from  which  either  liquor  can  be  re- 
removed  by  means  of  a  pump  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

Of  the  'purifying  Apparatus  for  separating  the  Gases  unfit 
for  the  purposes  of  Illumination. 

With  the  two  compounds  of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  viz., 
olefiant  gas  and  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  which  are  yielded 
by  coal  during  its  destructive  distillation  by  heat,  several 
other  products  are  obtained,  which  are  not  only  useless  for 
the  purpose  of  illumination,  but  are  calculated  to  diminish  the 
brilliancy  of  the  light  which  is  afforded  by  these  gases,  and 
even  to  prove  a  source  of  serious  nuisance  during  their  com- 
bustion. Among  these  products  of  a  deleterious  nature  are 
carbonic  acid  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen ;  and  in  smaller 
quantity,  carbonic  oxide,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen.  The  first 
two  are  by  far  the  most  objectionable  of  these  impurities ;  and 
fortunately  their  separation  can  be  effected  more  easily  than 
that  of  the  others,  the  presence  of  which  is  of  less  importance. 

Carbonic  acid  is  readily  absorbed  by  any  of  the  alkalies 
or  earthy  bodies  in  a  caustic  state  ;  and  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, which  possesses  many  of  the  properties  of  an  acid,  unites 
not  only  with  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  with  which  it 
farms  a  species  of  salts  termed  hy dro sulphur ets^  but  also  with 
the  metallic  oxides,  most  of  which  it  reduces. 

The  alkalies  being  too  expensive  to  be  used  for  separating 
carbonic  acid  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  from  coal-gas,  a 
more  economical  substitute,  and  which  answers  the  purpose 
almost  equally  well,  is  found  in  quick-lime.  This  substance 
is  accordingly  used  in  every  gas  establishment  on  the  large 
scale,  in  some  form  or  other,  in  purifying  the  gas.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  two  states ;  either  in  the  condition  of  a  thin  paste, 
which  the  workmen  call  the  cream  of  lime,  or  of  a  moistened 
powder,  such  as  lime  assumes  when  it  is  slaked  with  a  little 
more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  water.     The  apparatus  must 


Gas — Manufacture.  267 

therefore  be  accomodated,  in  its  construction  and  arrange- 
ment, to  these  different  conditions  of  the  purifying  material. 

When  the  lime  is  used  in  a  liquid  state,  the  gas  is  made 
to  pass  through  it  so  as  to  be  as  much  as  possible  exposed  to 
its  action ;  and  it  being  highly  conducive  to  the  success  of 
the  purifying  process  that  a  succession  of  fresh  portions  of 
the  liquid  lime  should  be  brought  in  contact  with  the  gas  as 
it  passes  through  it,  the  material  is  kept  in  a  state  of  constant 
agitation  by  means  of  machinery. 

One  of  the  objections  against  the  method  of  purifying  by 
the  cream  of  lime,  or  lime  in  a  liquid  state,  is,  that  unless 
the  gas  be  previously  freed  entirely  from  tar,  that  substance 
enveloping  it  with  a  thin  film  of  oleaginous  matter,  which  has 
little  tendency  to  unite  with  water,  carries  the  gas  along  with 
it  in  rolling  bubbles,  so  that  the  internal  parts  of  it  can  thus 
scarcely  ever  come  into  contact  with  the  purifying  materials. 
In  some  arrangements  mechanical  contrivances  are  employed 
to  agitate  and  disperse  the  gas,  with  the  view  of  exposing 
every  portion  of  it,  more  or  less,  to  the  action  of  the  lime ; 
but  these  modes  of  promoting  the  efficacy  of  the  process  can- 
not be  resorted  to  without  the  aid  of  some  moving  power, 
which,  in  many  cases,  must  necessarily  be  attended  with  con- 
siderable trouble,  as  well  as  additional  expense.  There  is 
another  objection  to  which  this  method  of  purification,  even 
if  it  required  not  the  assistance  of  machinery,  must  always 
be  liable  ;  namely,  that  the  olefiant  gas,  upon  which  the  il- 
luminating power  mainly  depends,  is  largely  absorbed  by 
water,  insomuch  that  either  oil  or  coal  gas,  standing  a  few 
days  over  that  fluid,  suffers  a  great  deterioration  of  its  quality, 
and  becomes  in  every  respect  less  fit  for  the  purposes  of  il- 
lumination. When  lime  is  used  in  the  dry  state,  or  rather 
in  the  state  of  a  moistened  powder,  for  purifying  coal  gas, 
neither  of  these  objections  is  applicable ;  and  when  the  ar- 
rangements for  that  mode  of  purification  are  contrived  with 
a  due  regard  to  the  simplictiy  and  convenience  of  the  ma- 
nipulations, the  separation  of  the  useless  and  noxious  gases  is 
effected  more  easily,  and  not  less  effectually,  than  by  the 
method  of  liquid  lime.  The  abstraction  of  the  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  becomes  more  perfect  by  adding  to  the  lime  a  small 
portion  of  the  peroxide  of  manganese,  which,  being  a  cheap 
substance,  adds  very  little  to  the  expense  of  the  process. 


268  Five  Black  Arts. 

It  is  stated  that  a  bushel  of  quick-lime  is  sufficient  for  the 
purification  of  10,000  cubic  feet  of  gas.  By  slaking  and 
reducing  it  to  powder  its  bulk  is  more  than  doubled ;  two 
bushels  of  hydrate  of  lime  thus  formed  cover  a  surface  of 
25  square  feet  to  a  depth  of  2|-  inches.  At  some  works  a 
bushel  of  slaked  lime,  or  half  a  bushel  of  unslaked  lime,  is 
allowed  for  every  ton  of  coals  distilled.  Some  engineers 
estimate  that  40  lbs.  of  lime  are  required  for  every  10,000 
cubic  feet  of  gas  from  average  Newcastle  coal.  If  more  lime 
is  required  the  coal  must  have  been  damp,  or  have  contained 
more  than  the  usual  proportion  of  sulphur.  Good  Newcastle 
coal  contains  about  one  per  cent,  of  sulphur ;  some  kinds  of 
cannel  only  one-half  per  cent.  The  capacity  of  dry  lime 
purifiers  is  calculated  on  the  assumption  that  25  square  feet 
of  surface  are  required  for  10,000  feet  of  gas.  The  purifi- 
ers are  generally  arranged  in  a  set  of  four,  three  of  which 
are  usually  at  work  while  the  fourth  is  being  emptied.  The 
spent  lime  contains  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia,  and  when 
exposed  to  the  air  it  evolves  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  carbonic 
acid  taking  its  place.  The  poisonous  liberated  gas  thus  be- 
comes a  nuisance  to  the  neighborhood,  but  it  is  sometimes  got 
rid  of  before  the  purifier  is  emptied,  by  connecting  each  pu- 
rifier with  a  large  horizontal  pipe  which  opens  into  the  chim- 
ney-shaft of  the  retort-house,  the  powerful  draught  of  which 
draws  oflf  all  volatile  matter  from  the  lime,  air  instead  of  gas 
being  let  in  at  the  bottom.  The  cover  of  the  purifier  can 
then  be  raised,  and  the  lime  be  removed  without  annoyance 
to  any  one.  The  lime  is  burned  in  ovens,  and  is  used  « 
second  time  in  the  purifiers,  after  which  it  becomes  refuse. 

The  quantity  of  lime  necessary  for  purifying  a  given  vol- 
ume of  coal-gas  varies,  as  already  stated,  with  the  quantity 
of  sulphur  contained  in  the  coal  from  which  the  gas  is  pro- 
duced. It  is  proper,  however,  to  examine  at  intervals,  during 
the  progress  of  the  purification,  the  state  of  the  gas  by  such 
chemical  tests  as  are  calculated  to  detect  the  presence  of  any 
of  the  deleterious  substances  with  which  it  is  usually  contam- 
inated. Thus  carbonic  acid  is  readily  discovered  by  agitat- 
ing a  small  portion  of  the  coal-gas  with  lime  water  in  a  limpid 
state,  the  solution  being  quickly  rendered  turbid  when  the 
most  minute  quantity  of  that  gas  is  present.  Sulphuretted 
hydrogen  is  discovered  with  equal  facility  by  causing  a  small 


Gas — Manufacture.  269 

current  of  coal-gas  to  play  against  a  slip  of  paper  moistened 
■with  a  weak  solution  of  acetate  of  lead,  or  nitrate  of  silver, 
both  of  which  instantly  become  black  when  they  are  exposed 
to  the  action  of  sulphuretted  hydyogen. 

Of  late  years  a  variety  of  improvements  have  been  intro- 
duced for  purifying  gas,  which  we  now  proceed  briefly  to  no- 
tice. They  are  at  present  only  in  partial  use,  but  are  likely 
to  lead  to  important  results.  Indeed  the  chemistry  of  the 
manufacture  is  just  now  in  a  transition  state,  and  is  receiving 
considerable  attention  from  scientific  men. 

After  the  tar  and  ammonia  have  been  for  the  most  part 
extracted  from  the  gas  by  the  condenser,  a  further  separation 
of  ammonia  is  now  frequently  eifected  by  passing  the  gas 
through  layers  of  coke  dust,  cinder  or  breeze,  or  brick-dust, 
placed  in  trays  or  sieves,  six  or  eight  inches  apart,  in  a  vertical 
hollow  shaft,  and  as  the  gas  streams  up  through  the  porous 
column  the  ammonia  is  retained.  This  scrubber^  as  it  is  called, 
is  sometimes  used,  in  conjunction  with  a  washing  vessel,  and 
sometimes  the  latter  only  is  employed,  with  the  advantage  of 
separating  a  portion  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  carbonic 
acid  as  well  as  the  ammonia ;  but  the  wash-vessel  is  said  to 
remove  much  of  the  olefiant  gas,  the  illuminating  power  of 
which  is  very  high ;  an  objection  which  does  not  apply  to  the 
scrubber.  Mr.  Croll  has  patented  a  methed  of  separating 
ammonia  by  means  of  chloride  of  manganese,  which  has  the 
efiect  also  of  removing  much  of  the  sulphide  of  carbon,  of 
producing  a  saving  of  one-half  or  one-third  of  the  lime  re- 
quired in  the  subsequent  process,  while  a  valuable  product  is 
formed  by  the  chlorine  of  the  manganese  uniting  with  the 
ammonia,  to  form  sal-ammoniac.  Ammonia  has  also  been 
separated  by  passing  the  gas  through  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
the  resulting  sulphate  of  ammonia  being  also  a  valuable  sec- 
ondary product.  The  ammonia  may  also  be  separated  by 
means  of  sulphate  of  manganese,  chloride,  or  sulphate  of  zinc. 

Formerly  a  good  deal  of  ammonia  passed  off  with  the  gas 
to  the  consumer,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  gas  meter,  the 
gas  fittings,  and  the  furniture  of  houses.  After  the  ammonia 
has  been  separated,  the  gas  is  passed  into  the  dry-lime  purifiers, 
which  are  preferable  to  the  wet  lime,  not  only  for  the  reasons 
already  stated,  but  on  account  of  the  less  amount  of  pressure 
required  to  force  the  gas  through  them.      The  objection  to 


270  Five  Black  Arts. 

dry  lime  is  on  account  of  the  volatile  nature  of  the- offensive 
hjdrosulphide  of  ammonia,  which  is  only  combined  with  it, 
so  that  when  the  purifiers  are  opened,  and  the  spent  lime  taken 
out,  the  oxygen  of  the  air  combines  with  the  hydrosulphide, 
evolving  great  heat,  and  filling  the  neighborhood  with  noxious 
odors.  This  serious  objection  is  now  obviated  by  getting  rid 
of  the  ammonia  between  the  condenser  and  the  purifier :  the 
salts  separated  by  the  dry  lime  are  then  no  longer  volatile, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  the  spent  lime  becomes  in  some  cases  a 
valuable  manure,  consisting,  as  it  does,  of  sulphate,  carbonate, 
and  cyanide  of  lime. 

A  method  of  purifying  the  gas,  patented  by  Mr.  Hills  of 
Deptford,  is  now  attracting  considerable  attention.  It  is  based 
upon  the  property  of  the  hydrated  oxide  of  iron  to  decompose 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  a  portion  of  the  sulphur  forming  a 
sulphide  with  the  iron.  Quick-lime  is  also  used  to  separate 
carbonic  acid,  and  the  oxide  of  iron  is  mixed  with  sawdust 
or  cinders  (breeze)  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  surfaces 
of  contact,  and  this  mixture  is  placed  in  the  purifiers.  When 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  gas  has  passed  through  it  the  purifiers 
are  opened,  and  the  mixture  is  exposed  to  the  air,  under  which 
new  condition  it  combines  with  oxygen,  and  again  becomes 
fitted  for  use  in  the  purifiers.  The  chemical  changes  which 
occur  in  these  operations  are  the  following : — The  mixture  of 
hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  etc.,  absorbs  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
Fe203  +  3HS=Fe2S3  +  3H0.  The  sulphide  of  iron,  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  absorbs  oxygen,  and  the  sulphur  is  sepa- 
rated in  an  uncombined  form  Fe2S3-|-03=Fe2  03-j- S3. 
The  mixed  material  can  be  again  employed  in  the  purification 
of  the  gas,  and  the  process  may  be  repeated  until  the  accu- 
mulation of  sulphur  mechanically  impairs  the  absorbent  powers 
of  the  mixture.  The  sulpho-cyanogen  which  accompanies 
the  gas  is  retained  by  the  oxide  of  iron,  and  gradually  accu- 
mulates in  the  mixture. 

Chemists  have  also  sought  for  substitutes  for  lime,  or  for 
means  of  diminishing  the  amount  usually  required.  M.  Penot 
recommends  sulphate  of  lead  for  separating  sulphide  of  hy- 
drogen. Professor  Graham  proposes  to  add  to  the  slaked 
lime  one  equivalent  of  crystallized  sulphate  of  soda,  which 
would  absorb  sulphide  of  hydrogen  until  two  equivalents 
thereof  were  absorbed  by  one  equivalent  of  lime  ;  the  lime 


I 


Gas — Manufacture.  271 

is  converted  into  sulphate,  and  the  soda  becomes  bi-hjdro- 
sulphuret,  which  might  be  readily  washed  out  of  the  lime, 
and  again  be  converted  into  soda  by  roasting,  and  thus  be 
used  over  and  over  again  to  mix  with  the  lime.  The  secondary 
product  formed  in  the  manufacture  of  chloride  of  lime,  viz., 
the  mixture  of  chloride  of  manganese  with  sulphate  of  soda, 
has  also  been  used  as  an  efficient  gas-purifier. 

Gasometers  for  receiving  and  eoyitaimng  the  Gas  before  it 
is  consumed. 

As  many  disadvantages  would  be  experienced  by  attempt- 
ing to  adjust  the  production  of  the  gas  to  the  rate  of  its  con- 
sumption, it  is  found  to  be  more  convenient,  as  well  as  more 
economical,  to  store  up  such  a  portion  of  it  during  the  day  as 
shall  compensate  for  the  deficiency  of  the  supply  that  may 
be  furnished  during  the  time  the  gas  is  being  consumed  in 
the  course  of  the  evening.  The  capacity  of  the  vessels  used 
for  this  purpose,  which  are  incorrectly  called  gasometers  (for 
they  do  not  measure  the  gas,  but  only  act  as  gas-holders^^ 
must  be  regulated  by  a  regard  to  that  consideration. 

The  form  of  the  gasometer  is  generally  that  of  an  inverted 
cylindrical  cup,  the  diameter  of  which,  when  economy  is 
studied,  ought  to  be  double  of  its  depth,  or  at  least  not  more 
than  two  or  three  inches  less.  Gasometers  were  formerly 
composed  of  sheet  iron  varying  in  weight  from  two  to  three 
lbs.  to  the  square  foot,  well  riveted  at  the  joints,  and  kept  in 
shape  by  means  of  stays  and  braces  formed  of  cast  or  bar 
iron.  The  sheet  iron  was  made  to  overlap  at  the  joints — a 
slip  of  canvas,  w^ell  besmeared  with  white-lead,  being  inter 
posed  to  secure  perfect  tightness.  The  prismatic  shape  was 
also  formerly  adopted,  but  it  was  not  found  to  be  so  conven- 
ient as  the  cylindrical,  partly  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
making  it  retain  its  form,  and  partly  on  account  of  the  greater 
quantity  of  material,  compared  with  the  capacity,  that  is  nec- 
essary for  its  construction. 

The  gasometer  on  the  old  construction  was  furnished  with 
a  tank,  of  the  same  form  with  itself,  but  a  little  larger  in  di- 
mensions, for  containing  the  water,  in  which  it  was  suspended 
at  different  altitudes,  by  means  of  a  chain  and  counterpoise 
moving  over  pulleys.     The  tank  was  sometimes  built  of  stone, 


272  Five  Black  Arts. 

but  more  frequently  constructed  of  cast-iron  plates-  bolted 
together  by  flanches,  with  an  interval  between  them  of  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch,  which  was  afterward  filled  up  with 
iron  cement.* 

As  the  gasometer,  when  it  is  immersed  in  the  water  of 
the  tank,  suffers  a  loss  of  weight  equal  to  that  of  the  portion 
of  the  fluid  it  displaces,  it  is  evident  that  unless  some  ar- 
rangement be  made  to  counteract  the  varying  pressure  which 
must  thus  result  from  the  different  depths  to  which  it  may  be 
immersed,  the  gas  contained  in  the  gasometer  will  be  expelled, 
at  different  times,  with  a  varying  force.  If,  however,  the 
weight  of  the  chain  of  suspension,  or  rather  the  weight  of  that 
portion  of  it  whose  length  is  the  same  as  the  height  to  which 
the  gasometer  ascends,  be  equal  to  half  the  loss  of  weight  which 
the  gasometer  sustains  by  immersion  in  water,  a  perfect  com- 
pensation will  be  made,  and  an  equilibrium  will  hold  between 
the  gasometer  and  its  counterpoise  at  all  altitudes.  Thus,  if 
the  weight  of  the  gasometer  were  five  tons,  or  11,200  lbs., 
and  it  lost  by  immersion  a  seventh  part  of  its  weight,  or  1600 
lbs.,  then  the  weight  of  that  portion  of  the  chain  equal  in  length 
to  the  highest  ascent  of  the  gasometer  would  require  to  be  800 
lbs.,  and  the  weight  of  the  counterpoise  11,200  —  800,  or 
10,400  lbs. 

lbs. 
For,   the  gasometer  being  immersed,  its  virtual  weight  is  11,200 

—  1600,  or 9,600 

Weight  of  portion  of  chain  now  acting  with  the  gasometer 800 

Sum  is  the  weight  of  counterpoise 10,400 

Again : 

The  gasometer  being  elevated  out  of  water,  its  weight  is 11,200 

"Weight  of  chain  now  acting  in  opposition  to  it 800 

Difference  is  the  weight  of  counterpoise 10,400 

*  The  following  iron  cement  is  recommended  by  Peckston  :  Take  iron 
turnings  or  borings,  and  pound  them  in  a  mortar  till  they  are  small  enough 
to  pass  through  a  fine  sieve ;  then,  with  one  pound  of  these  borings,  so 
prepared,  mix  two  ounces  of  sal-ammoniac  in  powder,  and  one  ounce  of 
flowers  of  sulphur,  by  rubbing  them  well  together  in  a  mortar  ;  and  after- 
ward keep  the  mixture  dry  till  it  may  be  wanted  for  use.  When  it  is  so, 
for  every  part  thereof,  by  measure,  take  twenty  parts  of  iron  borings,  pre- 
pared as  above  mentioned,  and  mix  them  well  together  in  a  mortar  or  other 
iron  vessel.  The  compound  is  to  be  brought  to  a  proper  consistency  by 
pouring  water  gently  over  it  as  it  is  mixing;  and  when  used  it  must  be 
applied  between  the  fianches  by  means  of  a  blunted  caulking  iron. 


Gas — Manufacture.  273 


Although  the  compensation,  by  this  adjustment  of  the 
weight  of  the  chain,  answers  the  purpose  in  the  most  effectual 
manner,  the  following  method  is  by  some  deemed  preferable. 
Let  the  counterpoise  consist  of  a  long  cylindrical  or  prismatic 
body,  having  the  area  of  its  horizontal  section  equal  to  the 
area  of  a  similar  section  of  the  plates  of  the  gasometer,  and 
be  allowed  to  descend  into  the  water  as  the  gasometer  rises 
out  of  it.  Also  let  the  chain  be  of  a  weight  equal  (length 
for  length)  to  a  column  of  water  of  equal  bulk  with  the  coun- 
terpoise. Then,  if  the  weight  of  the  gasometer  be,  as  al- 
ready supposed,  11,200  lbs.,  the  weight  of  the  counterpoise 
must  be  the  same ;  but  the  weight  of  that  portion  of  the 
chain,  which,  by  the  above  arrangement,  was  only  equal  to 
half  the  loss  of  weight  sustained  by  the  gasometer  when  im- 
mersed, must  now  be  equal  to  the  whole  of  that  weight. 

lbs. 

Then,  the  weight  of  the  gasometer  in  the  water  ip,  as  before 9,600 

Weight  of  the  chain  now  acting  with  the  gasometer 1,600 

Weight  of  counterpoise,  now  out  of  the  water 11,200 

Again: 

The  weight  of  the  gasometer,  out  of  the  water,  is 11,200 

Weight  of  the  chain,  now  acting  in  opposition  to  the  gasometer. . .    1,600 

Weight  of  the  counterpoise,  in  water 9,600 

Though  we  have  only  shown,  in  both  these  modes  of  com- 
pensation, that  an  equilibrium  between  the  gasometer  and  its 
counterpoise  holds  in  the  extreme  cases,  it  would  be  easy  to 
prove  that  the  same  thing  must  subsist  at  all  the  intermediate 
elevations  of  the  gasometer.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be 
obvious  that  these  contrivances,  however  well  calculated  they 
may  be  to  secure  the  equilibrium  alluded  to,  can  have  no  ef- 
fect in  expelling  the  gas ;  and  therefore,  when  it  is  wished 
that  the  contents  of  the  gasometer  shall  issue  from  it  under 
a  certain  pressure,  the  weight  of  the  counterpoise  must  be 
diminished  to  a  suitable  extent.  Thus,  if  it  were  required 
that  the  pressure  employed  for  expelling  the  gas  should  be 
equal  to  that  produced  by  a  column  of  water  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  deep,  then  it  would  be  necessary  to  diminish  the 
weight  of  the  counterpoise  by  the  weight  of  a  column  of  water 
having  the  same  diameter  with  the  gasometer,  and  an  altitude 
of  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  If  the  diameter  of  the  gasom- 
18 


274  Five  Black  Arts. 

eter  above-mentioned  were,  for  example,  35  feet  or  420  inches, 
the  weight  of  a  cylindrical  portion  of  water  having  that  di- 
ameter, and  a  depth  of  three-fourths  of  an  inch,  would  be, 
in  grains, 
420^  X  7854  X  }  X  252-5  =  26236876  grs.  or  3740>s. 

Hence  it  would  be  necessary  to  make  the  counterpoise 
3740  lbs.  lighter  than  it  was  supposed  to  be  according  to  the 
above-mentioned  arrangements,  in  order  that  the  gas  might 
issue  from  the  gasometer  under  the  pressure  of  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  of  water.  If  the  calculation  were  conducted  with 
extreme  accuracy,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas  ought  also 
to  be  taken  under  consideration ;  but  the  object  to  be  attained 
is  not  of  so  delicate  a  nature  as  to  require  an  attention  to 
such  minute  circumstances.  Besides,  we  shall  afterward 
find  that  the  value  of  the  arrangements  we  have  described 
for  obtaining  a  uniform  and  equable  pressure  is  greatly  di- 
minished ;  and  these  are  even  entirely  supersed'cd  by  a  con- 
trivance called  the  governor. 

Such  is  the  old  method  of  constructing  gasometers.  Of 
late  years,  however,  a  different  system  has  prevailed.  In- 
stead of  making  them  of  heavy  plate  iron,  strengthened  by 
angle  iron  and  stays,  and  of  so  great  a  weight  as  to  require 
the  above-described  complex  system  of  equilibrium  chains  and 
counterbalancing  weights  to  relieve  the  gas  from  the  great 
pressure  to  which  it  would  otherwise  be  subjected,  the  gas- 
holders are  now  made  so  light  that  they  actually  require  to 
be  loaded  in  order  to  supply  the  required  pressure.  The 
practice  has  even  been  introduced  of  not  suspending  the 
gas-holders  at  all,  but  regulating  their  rise  and  fall  by  means 
of  guide-rods  placed  round  the  tank. 

The  pipes  by  which  the  gas  is  commonly  introduced  and 
conducted  off  being  in  many  cases  considerably  below  the 
level  of  the  street  pipes  with  which  they  communicate,  are 
apt  to  be  filled  up  in  the  course  of  time  with  the  condensed 
water  which  passes  off  in  a  vaporous  state  with  the  gas.  To 
remedy  this  inconvenience,  it  is  necessary  to  place  vessels  for 
receiving  that  water  in  connection  with  the  entrance  and  exit 
pipes,  so  contrived  that  the  accumulated  water  may  be  easily 
removed  from  them  when  required. 


Gas — Distribution.  2l7S 


Of  the  Main  and  Service  Pipes, 

The  gas  being  duly  purified  and  prepared  for  combustion, 
the  next  point  to  be  considered  is  the  transmission  of  it  from 
the  gasometer  to  the  various  places  where  it  is  to  be  consumed. 
As  it  must  sometimes  be  conveyed,  particularly  in  the  case 
of  large  establishments,  to  the  distance  of  several  miles,  it  is 
evident  that  unless  the  diameters  of  the  various  pipes  through 
which  it  is  to  be  conducted  have  a  due  relation  to  the  quan- 
tity of  gas  to  be  transmitted,  there  will  be  a  danger  either  of 
incurring  an  unnecessary  expense,  by  making  the  pipes  too 
large  ;  or,  what  is  still  worse,  of  being  exposed  to  a  deficiency 
of  supply,  by  making  them  too  small.  The  first  object,  there- 
fore, to  be  ascertained  by  the  engineer,  is  the  probable  num- 
ber of  lights  that  may  be  required  in  the  various  streets  and 
lanes  in  which  these  pipes  are  to  be  laid ;  and  these  being 
known,  the  corresponding  quantity  of  gas,  according  to  the 
quality  of  it,  may  be  afterward  computed.  With  regard  to 
the  relative  dimensions  of  the  pipes  at  different  distances  from 
the  gas-work,  the  only  general  rule  to  be  observed  is,  that  the 
sum  of  the  areas  of  the  sections  of  the  main  pipes  proceed- 
ing immediately  from  the  gasometer  should  be  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  areas  of  the  sections  of  the  various  branch-]  >i pes 
which  they  supply  with  gas  ;  and  this  rule,  with  some  little 
modification,  should  be  followed  in  the  case  of  the  subordinate 
ramifications. 

In  the  case  of  good  coal-gas,  we  may  safely  reckon  that 
one-fourth  of  a  cubic  foot  of  it  will  furnish  the  light  of  a 
moulded  candle  for  an  hour,  of  which  one  pound  will,  when 
the  candles  are  burnt  in  succession,  last  forty  hours.  On  this 
supposition,  and  assuming  that  the  pressure  upon  the  gas  in 
the  gasometer  is  equal  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  water, 
the  diameters  of  pipes  necessary  for  conveying  various  quan- 
tities of  gas  may  be  stated  as  follows : 


276 


Five  Black  Arts. 


Diameter  of 

Quantity  of  Gas  in 

Equivalent  Num- 

Pipe in  Inches. 

cubic  feet  per  hour. 

ber  of  Candles. 

1 

4 

4 

16 

i 

20 

80 

3 

4 

60 

200 

1 

90 

360 

2 

380 

1,520 

8 

880 

8,520 

4 

1,580 

6,320 

5 

2,480 

9,920 

6 

3,580 

14,320 

T 

4,880 

19,520 

8 

6,380 

25,520 

9 

8,090 

32,360 

10 

10,000 

40,000 

This  table  has  been  deduced  partly  from  theoretical  con- 
siderations, and  partly  from  the  results  of  experiment. 
Peckston  affirms,  in  his  work  on  Gas-lighting,  that  a  pipe 
ten  inches  in  diameter,  is  capable  of  transmitting  50,000 
cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  under  a  pressure  of  one  inch  of 
water  ;  while,  according  to  the  statement  of  Mr.  Creighton, 
such  a  pipe  would  scarcely  convey  the  tenth  part  of  that 
quantity,  under  a  pressure  of  from  four-eighths  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  of  water.  It  is  impossible  to  reconcile 
these  discordant  statements  either  by  an  allowance  for  the 
difiference  of  pressure  or  the  difference  of  the  specific  gravi- 
ties of  the  gases ;  for  it  ought  to  be  kept  in  view  that  the 
discharge  of  gas  is  directly  proportioned  to  the  square 
root  of  the  height  of  the  column  of  water  by  which  it  is 
pressed,  and  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  gas.  Both  of  these  propositions,  however, 
must  be  greatly  modified  by  friction,  and  consequently  by  the 
length  of  the  pipes  through  which  the  gas  is  conveyed. 
In  the  supply  stated  to  be  furnished  by  pipes  of  different 
dimensions,  we  have  deemed  it  safest  rather  to  underrate  the 
quantity  than  overrate  it. 

The  main-pipes  are  usually  made  of  cast-iron,  joined  to- 


Gas — ^Distribution.  277 

gether  with  socket-joints,  in  lengths  of  three  yards.  The 
depths  of  the  sockets  vary  in  pipes  of  different  sizes  from 
three  to  six  inches,  part  of  them  being  fitted  with  gasket  to 
bring  the  centers  of  the  pipes  into  line,  and  the  remainder 
with  lead  after  the  gasket  has  been  driven  home  with  suitable 
chisels  or  caulking  irons.  The  depth  of  lead  to  secure  b, 
good  joint  should  not  be  less  than  an  inch  and  a  half;  the  in- 
terval between  the  spigot  and  the  socket  being  from  three- 
eighths  to  seven-eighths  of  an  inch,  according  to  the  diameter 
of  the  pipe.  Joints  are  now  frequently  made  without  lead. 
One  plan  is  to  caulk  into  the  bottom  of  the  socket,  to  the 
depth  of  two  inches,  white  rope-yarn  covered  with  putty,  and 
to  nearly  fill  up  with  tarred  gaskets,  leaving  a  gate  into  which 
is  poured  a  composition  of  melted  tallow  and  vegetable  oil. 
Another  plan  is  to  bore  the  socket  of  the  pipe  with  a  slightly 
conical  opening,  the  small  end  being  similarly  turned  to  fit 
the  socket.  The  two  ends  of  the  pipe  are  coated  with  a  mix- 
ture of  white  and  red  lead,  and  being  brought  together,  are 
driven  home  by  a  mallet.  Such  a  joint  is  said  to  be  quite 
tight.  Rings  of  vulcanized  India-rubber  have  also  been 
recommended  for  the  joints  of  gas  and  water  pipes. 

As  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  is  carried  off  by  the 
gas  in  the  state  of  vapor,  which  is  afterward  condensed  in  the 
pipes,  some  arrangement  must  be  made  for  its  collection  and 
occasional  removal ;  and  accordingly,  in  laying  the  pipes, 
care  must  be  taken  to  give  them  a  regularity  of  declivity 
toward  one  or  more  points,  where  proper  syphons,  close  ves- 
sels, and  cocks  must  be  placed,  to  receive  and  discharge  the 
collected  water.  When  these  precautions  are  neglected,  or 
when  the  levels  are  inaccurately  taken,  much  anaoyance  is 
experienced  ;  and  as  the  evil  can  only  be  corrected  by  lifting 
and  rejoining  tlfe  pipes,  the  utmost  attention  should  be  paid 
to  guard  against  it  at  first. 

To  convey  the  gas  from  the  main-pipes,  and  distribute  it 
through  the  various  apartments  of  dwelling-houses,  pipes 
made  of  block-tin  are  generally  used ;  these  being  more  du- 
rable and  better  adapted  to  the  purpose  than  pipes  composed 
of  copper  or  any  other  metal.  In  arranging  the  interior  fit- 
tings, the  same  precautions  must  be  observed  as  were  recom- 
mended in  the  case  of  the  main  pipes,  viz.,  to  give  the  va- 
rious branches  a  due  degree  of  inclination,  so  as  to  cause  all 


278  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  condensed  water  to  flow  to  one  or  more  points,  where 
proper  cocks  must  be  placed  for  its  removal.  Unless  this  be 
done,  the  lights  will  be  apt  to  flicker,  or  be  extinguished  at 
times  altogether.  Nor  is  it  of  trivial  moment  to  enjoin  the 
workmen,  when  they  are  soldering  the  service-pipes,  to  avoid 
with  the  utmost  care  allowing  any  of  the  melted  metal  to  find 
its  way  into  the  inside  of  the  pipes';  it  being  in  a  great  meas- 
ure to  this  circumstance  that  the  deficiency  in  the  supply  of 
gas,  so  frequently  complained  of,  is  owing. 

Of  the  Governor  or  Regulator, 

The  quantity  of  gas  consumed  in  large  towns  varying 
greatly  at  different  times,  it  is  evidently  a  matter  of  some  im- 
portance to  the  public,  as  well  as  to  the  manufacturers  of  gas, 
that  the  supply  of  it  should  be  duly  adjusted  to  the  consump- 
tion ;  80  that  when  the  lamps  are  once  regulated  to  a  proper 
height  of  flame,  they  may  continue  afterward  to  burn  with 
the  same  steady  light  throughout  the  whole  of  the  evening. 
Any  contrivance  that  can  accomplish  so  desirable  an  object 
must  save  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  the  consumer  of  gas, 
and  much  unnecessary  waste  of  it  to  the  manufacturer ;  and 
such  is  the  design  of  the  governor  or  regulator.  Fig.  1  rep- 
resents one  of  these  contrivances,  d  being  the  pipe  proceed- 
ing from  the  gasometer,  by  which  the  gas  is  admitted,  and  e 
the  pipe  by  which  it  escapes ;  c  is  a  valve  of  conical  form, 
fitted  to  the  seat  i,  and  raised  and  depressed  by  means  of  the 
weight  /  attached  to  a  cord  passing  over  a  pulley ;  55  is  a 
cylindrical  vessel  formed  of  sheet-iron  which  ascends  and 
descends  in  the  exterior  vessel  aa,  in  which  water  is  con- 
tained to  the  level  represented.  The  gas,  entering  at  c?, 
passes  through  the  valve,  fills  the  upper  part  of  the  inverted 
vessel  56,  which  it  thus  partially  raises,  and  escapes  by  e. 
If  the  pressure  from  the  gasometer  be  unduly  increased  or 
diminished,  the  buoyancy  of  hh  will  be  increased  or  diminished 
in  like  proportion,  and  the  valve  being  by  this  means  more  or 
less  closed,  the  quantity  of  gas  escaping  at  e  will  be  unaltered. 
And  not  only  will  the  governor  accommodate  itself  to  the 
varying  pressure  of  the  gasometer,  but  also  to  the  varying 
quantities  of  gas  required  to  escape  at  e  for  the  supply  of 
the  burners.     Thus,  if  it  were  necessary  that  less  gas  should 


Gas — Distribution. 

pass  through  e,  in  consequence  of  the  extinction  of  a  portion 
of  the  lights,  the  increased  pressure  which  would  thus  be  pro- 
duced at  the  gasometer  would  raise  the  governor,  and  par- 
tially shut  the  valve,  till  the  state  of  it  was  duly  adapted  to 
the  requisite  supply  of  gas. 

When  a  large  district  is  supplied  by  a  single  gas  com- 
pany, and  different  parts  of  the  same  district  consume  va- 
riable quantities  of  gas,  variable  pressures  are  required. 
One  part  of  the  district  where  there  are  numerous  shops  will 
consume  more  than  another  part  which  consists  chiefly  of 
private  houses,  so  that  the  pressure  for  the  former  must  be 
greater  than  that  required  for  the  latter.  For  example,  the 
Westminster  district  has  about  20  such  divisions,  comprising 
nearly  150  miles  of  main,  and  the  varying  pressures  required 
for  each  division  are  managed  as  follows :  In  the  superin- 
tendent's room  there  are  a  number  of  small  gasometers,  call- 
ed pressure  indicators,  and  over  each  is  the  name  of  the  sub- 
district  to  be  supplied.  Each  gasometer  is  about  12  inches 
in  diameter.  It  is  supported  in  a  tank  of  water  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  can  rise  and  fall  with  the  varying  pressure  in 
the  mains  with  which  it  is  connected  hy  a  pipe.  At  the  up- 
per part  of  the  gasometer  is  a  rod,  carrying  a  black  lead  pen- 
cil, which  bears  upon  a  cylinder  which  is  covered  with  a 
sheet  of  paper,  along  the  top  of  which  are  marked  the  twenty- 
four  hours  of  the  day.  From  these  hours  perpendicular  lines 
are  drawn  to  the  bottom  of  the  sheet,  and  there  are  also  hori- 
zontal lines,  and  the  bottom  is  divided  into  tenths.  The 
cylinder  is  connected  with  a  time-piece,  so  as  to  rotate  on  its 
axis,  by  which  means  the  pencil  draws  a  line  opposite  the 
hour  when  it  is  set  going.  If  the  pressure  be  constant  for  a 
number  of  hours,  the  pencil  will  of  course  describe  a  portion 
of  the  circle  round  the  cylinder  parallel  with  the  top  and 
bottom  edges  of  the  paper,  or  a  straight  line  when  the  paper 
is  unrolled  ;  if  the  pressure  vary,  the  line  will  be  diagonal  or 
zig-zag.  At  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours  the  paper  is 
taken  off  the  cylinder,  and  replaced  by  a  new  one.  A  collec- 
tion of  these  papers  for  each  district  furnishes  an  index  to  the 
supply  of  gas  at  any  hour  of  the  day  to  the  sub-district  to 
which  it  refers. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  ascertain  the  pressure  to  which  the 
gas  is  subjected  in  the  various  forms  of  apparatus  used  in  the 


280  Five  Black  Arts. 

manufacture.  For  this  purpose  a  simple  gauge  is  attached 
thereto,  consisting  of  a  bent  graduated  glass  tube  containing  a 
portion  of  water  or  of  mercury.  If  one  end  of  the  tube  be 
screwed  into  a  vessel  or  an  upright  tube  containing  gas  of  the 
same  pressure  as  that  of  the  external  air,  the  liquid  will  stand 
at  the  same  height  in  the  two  limbs  of  the  gauge.  If  the  press- 
ure be  greater  than  that  of  the  external  air,  the  liquid  will 
rise  in  the  open  limb,  and  the  pressure  of  the  gas  will  be  1, 
2,  or  more  inches,  according  to  the  height  to  which  the  liquid 
rises.  But  if  the  pressure  of  the  gas  be  less  than  that  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  atmospheric  pressure,  which  always  acts 
at  the  open  end  of  the  tube,  will  prevail,  and  the  liquid  will 
be  depressed  in  the  open  limb,  and  rise  in  the  other. 

The  Gas-Meter, 

The  gas-meter  is  a  simple  but  ingenious  mechanical  con- 
trivance, the  design  of  which  is  to  measure  and  record  the 
quantity  of  gas  passing  through  a  pipe  in  any  given  interval 
of  time.  Experience  has  proved  it  to  be  no  less  advantageous 
to  the  consumer  than  to  the  manufacturer  of  gas,  by  allow- 
ing the  former  to  use  gas  without  any  unnecessary  waste  of  it, 
and  securing  to  the  latter  a  fair  and  regular  price  for  the 
quantity  of  it  actually  consumed. 

There  are  two  forms  of  meter  in  actual  use,  viz.,  the  wet  and 
the  dry.  The  former,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Clegg,  is  repre- 
sented in  the  annexed  figures.  In  the  sections,  figs.  2,  3, 
ec  represent  the  outside  case,  having  the  form  of  a  flat  cylin- 
der ;  a  is  a  tube  which  enters  at  the  center  for  admitting  the 
gas,  and  6,  fig.  2,  is  another  for  conveying  it  off  to  the  burn- 
ers ;  gg  'are  two  pivots,  one  supported  by  the  tube  a,  and  the 
other  by  an  external  water-tight  cup,  projecting  from  the  out- 
side casing,  and  in  which  is  contained  a  toothed  wheel  ^,  fix- 
ed upon  the  pivot,  and  connected  with  a  train  of  wheel-work 
(not  shown  in  the  figure)  to  register  its  revolutions.  The 
pivots  are  fixed  to  and  support  a  cylindrical  drum-shaped  ves- 
sel ddd^  having  openings  e,  e,  e,  e,  internal  partitions  ^/,  ef, 
ef,  ef,  and  a  center  piece  ffff.  The  machine  is  filled  with 
water,  which  is  poured  in  at  h  up  to  the  level  of  z,  and  gas 
being  admitted  under  a  small  pressure  at  a.  it  enters  into 
the  upper  part  of  the  center  piece,  and  forces  its  way  through 


GAS.] 


[  PlATE    1. 


AV2 


F/s-  3. 


GAS.] 


-MfsT^^^^ 


Gas — Meter. 


2«1 


such  of  the  openings  /  as  are  from  time  to  time  above  the 
surface  of  the  water.  By  its  action  upon  the  partition  which 
curves  over  the  opening  a,  a  rotatory  motion  is  communicated  to 
the  cylinder  ;  the  gas  from  the  opposite  chamber  being  at  the 
same  time  expelled  by  one  of  the  openings  e,  and  afterward 
escaping  at  6,  as  already  mentioned. 

As  the  quantity  of  gas  which  passes  through  the  machine 
in  any  given  time  depends  not  only  upon  its  internal  dimen- 
sions and  the  number  of  revolutions  which  it  performs,  but  also 
upon  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  water  in  which  the  cylin- 
der revolves,  due  care  must  be  taken  to  maintain  the  water  at 
the  same  level,  for  the  regular  action  of  the  meter.  This  is 
easily  accomplished,  by  pouring  in  water  when  necessary,  till 
the  superfluous  quantity  is  discharged  by  an  orifice  properly 
placed  for  the  purpose. 

One  great  objection  to  the  wet  meter  is,  that  the  water  is 
liable  to  freeze  in  winter,  by  which  means  the  supply  of  gas 
is  stopped  ;  it  has  been  proposed  to  use  a  solution  of  caustic 
potash  or  soda  instead  of  water,  as  being  less  liable  to  freeze, 
and  exerting  a  beneficial  action  on  the  gas  by  removing  traces 
of  carbonic  acid  or  sulphide  of  hydrogen.  A  second  objection 
is,  that  if  the  water  level  be  lowered  so  that  one  compartment 
may  at  the  same  time  communicate  with  the  central  and  outer 
spaces//  and  de,  more  gas  will  pass  than  can  be  registered, 
an  effect  sometimes  produced  by  the  dishonest  consumer  tilting 
forward  the  meter.  In  the  dry  meter,  as  its  name  implies,  no 
liquid  is  used,  and  the  gas  is  measured  by  the  number  of  times 
that  a  certain  bulk  of  it  will  fill  a  chamber  constructed  so  as 
to  contract  and  expand  for  the  passage  of  the  gas.  These 
alternate  contractions  and  expansions  give  motion  to  certain 
valves  and  arms,  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  train  of  wheels, 
turn  the  hands  of  the  dials  as  in  the  wet  meter.  The  two 
forms  of  dry  meter  which  have  attracted  most  attention  are 
Defrie's  and  CroU  and  Glover's.  Defrie's  meter  consists  of 
three  measuring  chambers  separated  by  leathern  partitions 
partially  covered  by  metal  plates,  and  as  they  expand  by  the 
pressure  of  the  gas  they  assume  the  form  of  a  cone  on  one 
side  or  other,  the  motion  of  which  backward  and  forward  drives 
the  measuring  machinery,  and  by  an  action  somewhat  similar 
to  that  of  a  three-throw  pump,  a  continuous  stream  of  gas  is 
ejected.     This  incessant  bending  of  the  leather  backward 


282  Five  Black  Arts. 

and  forward  causes  it  to  wear  rapidly,  while  the  efficiency  of 
the  meter  obviously  depends  on  the  soundness  of  the  leather. 
In  Messrs.  Croll  and  Glover's  meter  the  leather  is  applied  in 
perhaps  a  less  objectionable  form.  This  meter  consists  of  two 
short  metal  cyUnders,  each  closed  at  one  end  ;  AA,  fig.  4, 
representing  one  such  end  attached  to  a  fixed  central  plate 
BB,  by  means  of  broad  bands  of  leather,  which  act  as  hinges, 
allowing  one  side  to  swell  out  with  gas,  while  the  other  parts 
with  its  gas  by  being  pressed  in  toward  the  center  plate.  The 
to-and-fro  motion  of  the  discs  which  close  the  short  cylinders 
afibrds  means  for  measuring  the  gas.  Each  disc  is  kept  in 
place  by  a  hinge  joint  S  attached  to  upright  rods,  RR'.  There 
are  also  parallel  motions  exy  attached  to  each  disc,  and  to  the 
top  plate  of  the  meter.  As  the  gas  passes  intoleach  cylinder 
and  distends  it,  the  rods  RR',  one  on  each  side,  are  made  to 
move  each  through  the  half  of  a  circle  by  means  of  jointed 
levers  S  attached  to  them.  At  the  top  of  each  rod  are  two 
arras  R«c?,  R'ac?,  fig.  5,  each  of  which  partaking  of  the  motion 
of  the  rods  RR  describes  alternately  the  arc  of  a  circle,  and 
a  rotatory  motion  is  obtained  by  means  of  connecting  rods 
attached  to  these  arms,  and  also  to  two  other  arms  rr  which 
work  two  D  valves  DD,  each  of  which  is  made  to  slide  back- 
ward and  forward  over  three  apertures,  the  two  outer  of 
which  lead  to  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  cylinders  respec- 
tively, and  the  middle  aperture  to  the  exit  pipe  E.  It  is  the 
function  of  these  valves  to  regulate  the  flow  of  gas  into  and 
out  of  the  two  chambers  of  each  division  of  the  meter.  While 
the  gas  is  flowing  into  one  cylinder  and  distending  it,  the  gas 
on  the  other  side  of  this  cylinder  disc  is  expelled  to  the  exit 
pipe  E  ;  as  soon  as  this  is  done,  the  valve  is  reversed  and  gas 
enters  on  the  side  of  the  disc  from  whence  it  was  last  expelled. 
The  process  is  then  repeated  by  the  other  disc,  and  in  this 
way  a  continuous  flow  of  gas  is  obtained  by  means  of  the  two 
valves  DD,  which  being  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  double- 
cranked  shaft,  and  the  two  cranks  on  the  shaft  being  at  an 
angle  of  45*^  to  each  other,  it  follows  that  as  one  valve  closes 
the  other  opens,  but  the  closed  valve  always  begins  to  open 
before  the  other  is  quite  shut.  In  fig.  5,  the  dotted  portion 
represents  one  of  the  short  cylinders  A'  distended  with  gas, 
and  the  other  cylinder  A  collapsed. 

We  will  now  trace  the  course  of  the  gas  in  its  passage 


Gas— Meter.  283 

through  the  meter.  Suppose  a  continuous  stream  of  gas 
under  pressure  to  be  passing  down  the  inlet  pipe  I.  On 
arriving  at  i  it  meets  with  a  horizontal  tube  which  conducts 
it  by  the  aperture  o,  fig.  5,  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  into 
a  triangular  chamber  VV.  It  then  passes  down  an  open  slit 
of  one  of  the  valves,  which  we  will  call  No.  1,  and  entering 
one  of  the  cylinders,  distends  it  and  forces  the  gas  which 
was  on  the  outside  of  the  disc  to  escape  through  slit  No.  2, 
and  so  along  a  tube  Jc  leading  to  the  exit  pipe  E.  While  this 
action  is  going  on,  that  is,  while  the  cylinder  on  one  side  is 
being  distended,  the  cylinder  on  the  other  side  is  already  full, 
the  gas  is  shut  off  from  it  by  the  shding  valve  D,  and  is  made 
to  pass  on  the  outside,  where  exerting  its  pressuieon  the  disc 
AA,  it  forces  it  inward,  and  the  gas  escapes  along  a  short 
pipe  attached  to  either  side  of  the  partition  BB  into  slit  No. 
2,  and  so  escapes  to  the  exit  pipe.  The  triangular  chamber 
VV  has  no  connection  with  the  cylinders,  etc.  situated  below 
it  except  through  the  tubes  already  indicated,  and  the  train 
of  wheels  W,  fig.  5 ;  and  the  dials  are  also  so  boxed  in  as 
not  to  be  exposed  to  the  corrosive  action  of  the  gas.  The 
rods  R'R  pass  into  this  upper  compartment  through  leather 
washers  and  a  stuffing  of  wool.  The  cylinders  are  inclosed 
in  an  oblong  box  of  iron  plate  or  galvanized  iron,  so  as  to  be 
completely  concealed  from  view.  The  pressure  to  which  the 
gas  is  subjected  in  order  to  force  it  along  the  mains  is  amply 
sufficient  to  work  this  meter.  If  the  gas  were  subjected  to 
the  pressure  of  only  half  an  inch  of  water,  this  quantity 
multiplied  into  the  area  of  the  disc,  which  in  a  ten-light 
meter  is  ten  inches  in  diameter,  amounts  to  many  pounds. 

The  circular  motion  of  the  double  crank  is  transmitted  by 
means  of  an  endless  screw  c,  fig.  4,  and  a  spur-wheel  b  along 
a  wire  bb,  fig.  5,  to  a  train  of  wheels  W,  waich  record  their 
revolutions  on  the  face  of  the  dials  G,  also  shown  separately 
in  fig.  6,  registering  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  gas  consumed, 
in  units,  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  etc.  The  top  circle  marks 
the  units,  the  left-hand  circle  hundreds.  The  motion  of  the 
hand  from  0  to  1  shows  that  100  cubic  feet  of  gas  have  passed 
through  the  meter,  while  a  whole  revolution  of  this  hand  re- 
gisters ten  times  that  quantity,  or  1000  cubic  feet.  The 
motion  of  the  hand  of  the  center  circle  from  0  to  1  indicates 
1000  feet,  and  a  whole  revolution  10,000  feet.      The  right- 


284  Five  Black  Arts. 

hand  circle,  in  a  similar  manner,  indicates  in  a  whole  revolu- 
tion 100,000  feet.  In  reading  off  the  numbers  on  the  circles, 
we  take  the  number  at  which  the  hand  is  pointing,  or  the 
lower  of  the  two  numbers  that  the  hand  is  between.  In 
fig.  6,  beginning  with  hte  right-hand  dial,  the  hand  is  be- 
tween 9  and  0,  showing  that  nearly  a  whole  revolution  has 
been  accomplished ;  we  therefore  write  down : 

90,000  for  the  right-hand  dial, 
8,000  for  the  middle  dial, 
700  for  the  left-hand  dial. 


98,700 


I 


If  the  collector,  in  taking  the  register  three  months  before, 
had  recorded  the  quantity  as  73,200,  this  quantity,  deducted 
from  98,700,  gives  25,600  cubic  feet  as  the  consumption  of 
gas  for  three  months.  The  top  or  units  dial  is  not  used  in 
registering,  but  it  serves  to  indicate  to  the  collector  as  well 
as  to  the  consumer  that  the  dial  is  acting  properly,  the  more 
rapid  motion  of  the  hand  facilitating  this  object. 

Burners,  * 

The  most  economical  mode  of  consuming  gas,  so  as  to 
obtain  from  a  given  volume  of  it  the  greatest  possible  quantity 
of  light,  both  in  degree  and  duration,  is  a  problem  of  no  less 
importance  than  that  of  the  most  suitable  arrangements  for 
its  production  and  purification.  The  presence  of  oxygen,  in 
some  form  or  another,  being  essentially  necessary  to  produce 
ordinary  combustion,  it  follows,  that  from  whatever  cause  that 
principle  may  be  deficient  in  quantity,  the  combustion  must  be 
imperfect;  and  when  this  is  the  case,  the  light  yielded  by  the 
combustible  body  is  also  diminished  in  a  proportional  degree. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  quantity  of  oxygen  brought  into 
contact  with  the  combustible  body  be  more  than  sufficient  for 
its  entire  combustion,  the  superfluous  quantity  of  that  gas, 
instead  of  augmenting  the  effect,  can  only  lower  the  temper- 
ature, and  diminish,  it  may  be  presumed,  in  a  corresponding 
degree,  the  intensity  of  the  light.  This  must  be  the  conse- 
quence if  the  brilliancy  of  the  light  yielded  by  a  combustible 
body  depends  at  all  upon  the  temperature  to  which  it  is  exposed 
during  its  combustion  ;  and  that  this  is  the  case  may  be  in- 


GAS.] 


[  Plate  3. 


fyff. 


Fi-r. 


Gas— Burners.  285 

ferred  from  the  simple  fact  of  causing  the  flame  of  a  jet  of 
gas  to  play  first  against  a  sheet  of  ice,  and  then  against  a 
bar  of  red-hot  iron,  when  the  difierence  of  the  light  will  be 
such  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  the  influence  of  temperature 
upon  its  intensity.  A  similar  result  is  obtained  by  bringing 
the  flames  of  two  separate  jets  into  contact,  when  an  obvious 
increase  of  light  is  perceived.  From  these  simple  facts  it 
may  be  inferred,  that  though  a  certain  quantity  of  common 
air  must  be  brought  into  contact  with  the  inflamed  gas  to 
produce  the  greatest  intensity  of  light,  whatever  exceeds  that 
quantity  will  not  only  be  useless,  but  by  diminishing  the  tem- 
perature of  the  flame,  must  tend  to  impair  the  brilliancy  of 
its  light. 

But  although  the  immediate  cause  of  the  light  is  probably 
the  high  temperature  to  which  the  carbonaceous  portion  of 
the  gas  is  exposed,  the  condition  in  which  the  carbon  exists 
at  the  time  it  is  so  exposed  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
the  efiect.  According  to  the  opinion  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
as  adopted  by  Drs.  Christison  and  Turner,  "  a  white  light  is 
emitted  only  by  those  gases  which  contain  an  element  of  so 
fixed  a  nature  as  not  to  be  volatilizable  by  the  heat  caused 
during  the  combustion  of  the  gas;  and  that  in  coal-gas  this 
fixed  element  is  charcoal,  formed  by  the  gas  undergoing  de- 
composition before  it  is  burnt.  The  white  light  is  caused  by 
the  charcoal  passing  into  a  state,  first  of  ignition,  and  then  of 
combustion.  Consequently  no  white  light  can  be  produced 
by  coal  or  oil  gas  without  previous  decomposition  of  the  gas." 

'•  That  the  gas  undergoes  decomposition  before  it  burns, 
and  that  the  carbonaceous  matter  is  burnt  in  the  white  part 
of  the  flame  in  the  form  of  charcoal,  is  shown  by  placing  a 
piece  of  wire-gauze  horizontally  across  the  white  part  of  the 
flame,  when  a  large  quantity  of  charcoal  will  be  seen  to  escape 
from  it  unburnt.  And  that  this  previous  change  is  necessary 
to  the  production  of  a  brilliant  white  light  will  appear,  if  we 
consider  the  kind  of  flame  which  is  produced  when  decompo- 
sition does  not  previously  take  place.  For  example,  if  the 
gauze  be  brought  down  into  the  blue  part,  which  always  forms 
the  base  of  the  flame,  no  charcoal  will  be  found  to  escape. 
Or,  if  the  gauze  be  held  at  some  distance  above  the  burner, 
and  the  gas  be  kindled  not  below  but  above  it,  by  which  ar- 
rangement the  air  and  the  gas  are  well  mixed  previous  to 


285  Five  Black  Arts. 

combustion,  the  flame  is  blue,  and  gives  hardly  any  light. 
The  reason  is  obviously,  that  in  both  cases  the  air  is  at  once 
supplied  in  such  quantity  in  proportion  to  the  gas  that  the 
first  effect  of  the  heat  is  to  burn  the  gas,  not  to  decompose 
it.'*     {Edin.  Phil.  Journal^  No.  xxv.) 

To  these  statements  it  may  be  added,  that  if  a  jet  of  oil  or 
coal  gas,  burning  with  a  fine  yellow  flame  in  common  air,  be 
suddenly  surrounded  with  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen  gas,  the 
color  instantly  changes  into  a  pale  blue,  yielding  the  most 
feeble  light;  nor  does  the  flame  recover  its  brilliancy  until 
the  oxygen  is  largely  diluted  with  carbonic  acid,  when  it  burns 
for  a  short  time  with  greater  splendor  than  at  first.  For 
although  the  light  is  greatly  enfeebled  when  the  combustion 
of  the  gas  takes  place  in  pure  oxygen,  it  becomes  much  more 
vivid  when  the  combustion  is  carried  on  in  air  that  is  more 
largely  charged  with  oxygen  than  common  air.  Hence  the 
brilliancy  of  the  light  appears  to  depend  upon  two  conditions  : 
Ist^  the  perfect  combustion  of  a  portion  of  the  gas  in  an 
undecomposed  state  ;  ^dly^  the  temperature  produced  by  that 
combustion  upon  the  residual  part  in  a  decomposed  state. 
When  a  large  portion  of  the  gas  is  consumed  in  the  first 
condition,  the  temperature  is  higher;  but  the  undecomposed 
part  is  then  too  small  in  quantity  to  yield  an  intense  light, 
in  consequence  of  the  attenuated  state  of  the  carbon  ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  when  a  small  portion  of  the  gas  is  con- 
sumed in  the  undecomposed  state,  the  temperature  produced 
is  too  feeble  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  now  partially 
decomposed  part  to  a  sufficient  pitch  for  the  full  ignition  of 
the  carbon. 

The  conditions  which  thus  seem  to  be  necessary  for  obtain- 
ing the  greatest  portion  of  light  from  the  combustion  of  a 
given  quantity  of  gas,  while  they  are  perfectly  consistent 
with  the  most  anomalous  facts  presented  by  that  process,  so 
they  appear  to  afford  the  only  sure  principles  upon  which  we 
can  proceed  in  the  construction  of  gas-burners.  One  of  the 
most  obvious  conclusions  deducible  from  these  principles  is, 
that  whatever  be  the  form  of  the  gas-burner  its  construction 
should  be  such  that  while  it  admits  as  much  air  as  is  neces- 
sary for  the  perfect  combustion  of  the  gas,  it  should  never  ad- 
mit more  than  is  barely  sufficient  for  that  purpose. 

According  to  the  experiments  of  Drs.  Christison  and  Tur- 


Gas — Burners.  287 

ner,  the  diameter  best  fitted  for  single-jet  burners  appears  to 
be  about  one  twenty-eighth  of  an  inch  for  coal-gas,  and  one 
forty-fifth  for  oil-gas.  As  these  dimensions,  however,  must 
vary  with  the  quality  of  the  gas,  we  consider  one  thirty-sixth 
of  an  inch  to  be  more  applicable  to  the  gas  obtained  from 
cannel  coal,  if  its  specific  gravity  be  not  less  than  -65. 
Every  form  of  burner  composed  of  separate  jets,  in  which 
the  gas  is  made  to  issue  in  a  horizontal  or  oblique  direction, 
gives  a  consumption  which  increases  in  a  much  faster  ratio 
than  the  light  which  it  yields  ;  and  consequently,  however 
beautiful  such  burners  may  be  in  appearance,  they  are  far 
from  being  economical. 

One  of  the  most  useful  forms  of  a  burner  with  single  jets, 
is  where  there  are  two  holes,  and  their  directions  are  so  in- 
clined as  to  cause  the  streams  of  issuing  gas  to  cross,  and 
exhibit  during  their  combustion  a  broad  continuous  flame. 
This  burner,  which  is  termed  a  swallow-tail,  is  well  adapted 
for  street-lights,  as  it  gives  a  powerful  light  and  consumes  a 
small  quantity  of  gas.  When  the  gas  is  emitted  by  a  narrow 
slit  at  the  top  of  the  burner,  the  burner  receives  the  name  of 
a  bat-tving.  Specimens  of  common  gas  flames  are  represented 
in  figs.  7,  8,  9. 

But  of  all  the  forms  of  the  burner,  that  upon  the  Argand 
principle,  in  which  the  holes  are  arranged  in  a  circle,  c?,  fig. 
10,  so  as  to  allow  the  air  to  have  access  to  the  flame  internally 
as  well  as  externally,  is  the  most  economical,  and  the  best 
calculated  to  secure  the  complete  combustion  of  the  gas.  The 
diameter  of  the  holes  should,  in  this  burner,  be  about  the 
fortieth  part  of  an  inch  for  coal-gas  of  an  ordinary  good 
quality,  and  the  distance  between  them  should  be  such  as  to 
allow  the  separate  flame  of  the  different  jets  to  unite  together 
and  form  a  continuous  hollow  cylinder  of  light.  In  fig  10, 
a  is  the  pipe  which  supplies  the  gas,  and  b  h  the  channel  up 
■which  it  passes  to  the  holes  shown  in  the  lower  figure. 

The  construction  of  burners,  and  the  most  economical 
mode  of  consuming  gas,  having  been  examined  with  much 
philosophical  precision  by  Drs.  Christison  and  Turner,  we 
shall  extract  from  their  elaborate  dissertation  on  the  subject 
the  most  valuable  and  important  conclusions  which  they  have 
deduced  from  their  experiments  ;  and  this  we  do  with  great- 
er confidence,  because  the  results  they  obtained  coincide  very 


288 


Five  Black  Arts. 


exactly  with  those  which  the  writer  of  this  article  procured 
when  engaged  in  the  same  inquiry.  The  three  leading  points 
to  which  they  directed  their  attention  were,  1st,  the  length 
of  flame  most  suitable  for  different  burners ;  2dli/,  the  form, 
magnitude,  and  position  of  the  orifices  through  which  the  gas 
is  discharged,  and  ddli/,  the  modifications  of  the  light  pro- 
duced by  the  glass  chimney  of  the  Argand  burner. 

With  regard  to  the  length  of  flame  which  afforded  the 
greatest  light  compared  with  the  expenditure  of  gas,  they 
found  that,  in  the  case  of  the  jet,  the  best  length  for  coal-gas 
was  about  five  inches,  and  for  oil-gas  about  four  inches. 
When  the  flame  was  kept  shorter,  the  quantity  of  gas  con- 
sumed was  greater  in  comparison  of  the  light  which  it  yield- 
ed ;  but  no  advantage  was  gained  hy  increasing  the  length 
beyond  that  mentioned  as  the  most  suitable  for  each  gas ;  the 
combustion  becoming  less  perfect  and  beginning  to  be  accom- 
panied with  the  escape  of  the  carbon  in  the  form  of  smoke. 
Thus  they  found  that,  in  the  case  of  coal-gas  having  the 
specific  gravity  -602,  while  the  lights  emitted  from  a  two- 
inch  and  a  five-inch  flame  were  as  556  to  1978,  the  corres- 
ponding expenditures  were  to  each  other  as  605  to  1437. 
But  the  light,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  must  be  estima- 
ted inversely  as  the  quantity  of  gas  from  which  it  is  obtained  ; 
and  hence  the  ratio  of  the  lights,  in  reference  to  the  expen- 
diture, was  as  III  to  |f  H»  being  as  100  to  150. 

In  the  case  of  Argand  burners,  the  augmentation  of  the 
light  in  a  ratio  greater  than  the  expenditure  was  exemplified 
in  a  still  more  remarkable  degree.  Thus  the  following  results 
were  obtained  with  coal-gas  of  the  specific  gravity  -605,  by 
elevating  the  flame  of  a  five-holed  burner,  successively  from 
half  an  inch  to  five  inches  ; 


Length  of  Flame. 

Half- 
Inch. 

18-4 
83-7 

One- 
Inch. 

Two- 
Inch. 

Three- 
Inch. 

Four- 
Inch. 

Five- 
Inch. 

Light  

92-5 

148 

259-9 
203-3 

308-9 
241-4 

332-4 
265-7 

425-7 

Expenditure 

^18-1 

Ratio  of  light  to  expendi- ) 
ture          \ 

100 

282 

560 

582 

582 

604 

Hence  the  light  is  increased  about  six  times  for  the  same  ex- 
penditure by  raising  the  flame  from  half  an  inch  to  three  or 


Gas— Burners.  280 

four  inches ;  but  very  little  is  gained  by  any  additional  increase 
of  the  flame  beyond  that  lengthy  in  the  description  of  burn- 
ers with  which  the  experiments  were  made. 

These  facts  receive  a  satisfactory  explanation  from  the 
general  principles  which  we  have  already  laid  down  with  re- 
spect to  the  combustion  of  the  luminiferous  gases.  When  the 
flame  is  short,  the  supply  of  oxygen  for  the  combustion  is  too 
great ;  almost  the  whole  of  the  gas  is  thus  consumed  before 
any  portion  of  it  can  undergo  the  decomposition  which  is 
necessary  for  the  evolution  of  light ;  while  the  temperature 
of  the  flame  being  reduced  by  the  superfluous  air  which 
brushes  along  its  surface,  the  intensity  of  ignition,  and  with 
it  the  splendor  of  the  light,  is  proportionally  diminished. 
This  explanation  is  well  illustrated  by  partially  shutting  the 
central  part  of  the  burner,  and  thus  interrupting  the  supply  of 
air  to  the  internal  surface  of  the  flame ;  the  moment  this  is 
done,  the  length  of  the  flame  is  increased,  and  a  visible  im- 
provement of  the  light  takes  place,  thus  indicating  that  more 
air  was  previously  brought  in  contact  with  the  gas  than  was 
requisite  for  its  perfect  combustion. 

The  second  point  to  which  Drs.  Christison  and  Turner 
directed  their  attention  was  the  construction  of  the  burner 
itself,  particularly  the  magnitude  and  position  of  the  orifices 
at  which  the  gas  is  emitted  during  the  combustion.  The  same 
principles  which  explained  the  relation  between  the  light  and 
the  expenditure  in  the  case  of  flames  of  different  lengths, 
suggested  the  rule  for  regulating  the  dimensions  of  the  orifices ; 
and  accordingly  they  justly  inferred  that,  in  a  single  jet, 
the  diameter  of  the  aperture  ought  to  be  such  as  to  ensure 
the  complete  combustion  of  the  gas,  without  rendering  it 
more  vivid  than  is  necessary  for  that  efi*ect.  If  the  orifice  be 
too  small,  the  greater  portion  of  the  gas  is  liable  to  be  con- 
sumed without  suffering  a  previous  decomposition,  and  thus 
the  light  is  extremely  feeble ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the 
orifice  be  too  large,  the  surface  of  flame  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  air  being  too  small  in  comparison  of  the  discharge  of 
gas,  the  combustion  is  imperfect,  and  the  carbon,  after  being 
separated  from  the  hydrogen,  either  burns  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture with  a  dusky  flame,  or,  what  is  still  worse,  a  large  por- 
tion of  it  passes  off"  in  the  state  of  smoke.     In  conformity 

19 


290 


Five  Black  Arts. 


with  these  views,  they  recommend,  as  we  have  already  stated, 
a  twenty-eighth  of  an  inch  for  coal-gas,  and  a  forty-fifth  for 
oil-gas,  as  the  most  suitable  dimensions  for  single  jets.  They 
acknowledge,  however,  that  their  experiments  with  coal-gas 
■were  too  limited  to  justify  them  in  using  \ery  confident  lan- 
guage on  the  subject ;  and  we  have  therefore  the  less  hesita- 
tion in  stating  that  we  consider  an  orifice  varying  in  diameter 
from  a  thirty-second  to  a  thirty-sixth  of  an  inch  as  better 
adapted  to  coal-gas  of  a  specific  gravity  between  -62  and  -70. 

In  Argand  burners  the  diameter  of  the  orifices  ought  to  be 
a  little  smaller.  Drs.  Christison  and  Turner  state  that  the 
diameter  which  appeared  to  answer  best  for  coal-gas  of  the 
specific  gravity  '6,  when  the  holes  are  ten  in  a  circle  of 
three-tenths  of  an  inch  radius,  was  a  thirty-second  of  an 
inch.  We  consider  this,  however,  to  be  too  great  for  coal-gas 
of  a  better  quality,  and  would  recommend,  in  preference, 
apertures  varying  in  diameter  from  a  thirty-sixth  to  a  fortieth 
of  an  inch. 

The  distance  between  the  jet-holes  of  Argand  burners 
is  a  matter  of  no  less  importance  than  the  diameter  of  the 
orifices,  and  must  be  regulated  by  the  same  principles. 
When  they  are  so  far  asunder  that  the  flames  of  the  separate 
jets  do  not  coalesce,  no  advantage  is  derived  from  the  Argand 
form ;  but  when  they  unite,  and  compose  a  uniform  and  un- 
broken surface  of  flame,  the  light  is  considerably  greater, 
compared  with  the  expenditure  of  gas,  than  is  obtained  from 
detached  jets.  In  order  to  determine  the  most  suitable  dis- 
tance at  which  the  orifices  of  Argand  burners  should  be 
placed,  Drs.  Christison  and  Turner  employed  burners  six- 
tenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  they  caused  to  be  drilled 
■with  eight,  ten,  fifteen,  twenty,  and  twenty-five  holes,  a  fiftieth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  and  having  determined  with  each  of 
these  burners  the  light  and  expenditure  in  the  case  of  oil-gas, 
they  obtained  the  following  results : 


Burners. 

VIII. 

X. 

XV. 

XX. 

XXV. 

Light 

360 
367 

360 
318 

391 
296 

409 

289 

382 

275 

Ratio  of  light  to  expenditure 

98 

113 

132 

141 

139 

As  the  standard  of  comparison  was  a  single  jet,  burning 


Gas — ^Burners.  291 

with  a  four-inch  flame,  the  ratio  of  the  light  yielded  by  which 
to  the  expenditure  was  expressed  by  100,  it  was  inferred  that 
no  advantage  is  gained  by  giving  the  jets  the  Argand  ar- 
rangement with  a  burner  of  the  dimensions  above-mentioned 
if  the  holes  are  only  eight  in  number ;  and  that  the  gain  does 
not  increase  after  the  number  reaches  to  twenty.  In  the  for- 
mer case  the  distance  of  the  holes  must  have  been  -2356 
inch,  or  nearly  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  and,  in  the  latter, 
•0945  ;  so  that  the  most  advantageous  distance  for  jet-holes 
of  a  fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  would  seem  to  be  about 
yf  o^hs  of  an  inch.  For  coal-gas  burners,  however,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  jet-holes  ought  to  be  increased  in  a  ratio 
varying  inversely  with  the  quality  of  the  gas,  or  directly  as 
the  diameters  of  the  orifices  themselves.  Hence,  if  the  coal- 
gas  were  of  an  ordinary  quality,  the  jet-holes  should  not  be 
less  than  one-eighth  nor  more  than  one-sixth  of  an  inch  from 
each  other. 

^  The  difference  between  the  orifices  being  once  assumed, 
serves  to  determine  the  diameter  of  the  circle  of  holes. 
Thus,  in  a  burner  of  eighteen  holes,  each  a  seventh  of  an 

inch  asunder,  the  circumference  ought  to  be  18  X  ^  =  2*57 

inches,  and  consequently  the  diameter  of  the  circle  of  holes 

2-57 
should  be  .  ^  .., .,  =  '818  inch.     If  the  breadth  of  the  rim 
o*14ib 

be  supposed  to  be  a  tenth  of  an  inch,  and  perhaps  it  ought 
not  to  exceed  that  quantity,  it  may  be  proper,  in  the  case  of 
the  larger  burners,  to  contract  the  lower  part  of  the  central 
air-hole,  on  account  of  the  supply  of  air  to  the  inside  surface 
of  the  flame  increasing  in  a  faster  ratio  than  the  number  of 
jets. 

The  only  remaining  point  to  be  considered  with  respect  to 
the  burner  is  the  glass  chimney,  which  serves  at  once  to  pro- 
tect the  flame  from  irregular  currents  of  air,  and  to  convey 
to  the  gas  a  due  supply  of  it  during  combustion.  When  the 
interval  between  the  chimney  and  the  external  part  of  the 
flame  is  too  great,  the  tendency  of  the  air  to  flow  through  the 
air-hole  is  diminished,  and  the  flame  contracts  toward  the  top, 
where  it  yields  a  dusky  light,  and  indicates  a  disposition  to 
smoke.  The  diameter  of  the  chimney  should  therefore  be 
reduced  until  it  is  perceived  that  the  upper  part  of  the  flame 


292  Five  Black  Arts. 

is  enlarged  and  acquires  the  same  diameter  as  the  lower  part. 
When  this  is  the  case,  the  color  of  the  flame  is  improved  in 
brightness,  and  none  of  the  carbon  is  uselessly  wasted  in 
the  formation  of  smoke.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  supply 
of  air  to  the  external  surface  of  the  flame  be  diminished  be- 
yond a  certain  extent,  either  by  reducing  the  diameter  of 
the  glass  chimney,  or  by  any  other  means,  the  flux  of  air 
through  the  central  air-hole  is  unduly  increased,  the  flame 
diverges  in  the  form  of  a  tulip  till  it  touches  the  chimney, 
and  the  supply  of  air  to  the  outside  of  the  flame  being  thus 
interrupted,  smoke  is  again  produced.  Hence  the  greatest 
degree  of  light,  in  relation  to  the  expenditure  of  gas,  may  be 
expected  to  be  obtained  when  the  supply  of  air  to  the  exter- 
nal and  internal  surface  of  the  flame  is  so  adjusted  by  the 
diameter  of  the  chimney  that  the  flame  is  perfectly  cylindri- 
cal, neither  burning  with  too  much  vivacity,  nor  showing  any 
tendency  to  smoke.  The  length  of  the  glass  chimney  is  of 
much  less  importance  than  its  diameter,  and  may  vary  from 
five  to  six  inches. 

A  cylindrical  chimney,  however,  is  the  least  advantageous 
form  that  can  be  adopted.  If  the  chimney  be  tall  and  narrow, 
and  contracted  toward  the  top,  as  in  a,  fig.  11,  or  suddenly 
contracted  near  the  bottom,  as  in  6,  the  draught  is  increased 
and  the  light  improved.  It  is  also  useful  to  contract  the 
diameter  of  the  glass  chimney  about  a  couple  of  inches  above 
the  burner,  as  at  c,  so  as  to  form  a  shoulder  a  few  lines  in 
width,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  change  the  direction  of  the 
draught  and  project  it  on  the  flame  at  a  certain  angle. 

In  the  Bude  light  proposed  by  Gurney,  oxygen  gas  instead 
of  air  was  passed  through  the  flame,  the  effect  of  which  was 
greatly  to  increase  its  brilliancy.  In  the  Bude  light  as  now 
constructed,  there  are  two,  three,  or  more  concentric  burners 
with  chimneys  supplied  with  common  air,  and  a  dioptric  appa- 
ratus. 

Attempts  have  been  made  of  late  years  to  ventilate  gas- 
burners  so  as  to  get  rid  of  the  injurious  products  of  combustion. 
One  part  by  weight  of  good  coal-gas  produces  nearly  three 
parts  by  weight  of  carbonic  acid,  which  produces  many  dis- 
tressing symptoms  when  breathed  with  the  air  of  the  room. 
Sulphurous  acid,  and  other  compounds  which  are  not  entirely 
removed  in  the  purification  of  the  gas,  form  deleterious  pro- 


Gas — Burners.  293 

ducts  during  the  combustion  of  the  gas.  The  sulphurous 
acid  forms  sulphuric  acid,  which  exerts  a  corrosive  action  on 
the  walls  and  furniture,  books,  pictures,  etc.,  while  the  hy- 
drogen of  the  gas  produces  vapor  of  water  which  serves  as  a 
vehicle  for  some  of  the  other  products.  To  get  rid  of  these 
noxious  fumes  a  bell-«shaped  vessel  is  sometimes  suspended 
over  the  chimney,  and  is  connected  with  a  tube  leading  into 
the  open  air.  Unless  this  tube  be  judiciously  arranged  the 
condensed  water  may  accumulate  in  it,  and  cause  inconven- 
ience. By  a  contrivance  of  Dr.  Faraday,  a  copper  tube  of 
about  the  same  diameter  as  the  flame  is  conducted  from  its 
summit  out  of  the  apartment ;  the  heat  of  this  tube  establishes 
a  rapid  current,  which  serves  to  convey  away  the  products. 
The  same  distinguished  chemist  invented  another  contrivance, 
by  which  the  ventilating  current  is  made  to  descend  between 
two  concentric  glass  chimneys  of  different  heights,  the  outer 
one  being  the  taller,  and  this  is  covered  with  a  disc  of  talc. 
When  the  current  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  space  between 
the  two  glasses,  it  is  conveyed  away  by  a  ventilating  tube 
which  bends  upward.  The  descending  current  is  first  estab- 
lished by  applying  heat  to  the  bend  of  the  ventilating  tube 
where  it  begins  to  ascend ;  when  this  current  is  established 
the  gas  is  lighted,  and  the  plate  of  talc  is  put  on :  the  pro- 
ducts of  combustion  are  conveyed  into  a  box,  from  which  pro- 
ceeds a  pipe  for  conveying  the  vapors  outside.  A  globe  of 
ground  glass  open  only  at  the  bottom  is  placed  over  the  lamp. 
The  accumulation  of  condensed  water  in  different  parts  of 
this  apparatus  is  said  to  have  greatly  interfered  with  its 
successful  action. 

Mr.  R.  Brown  of  Manchester  has  a  contrivance  for  venti- 
lating by  means  of  gas.  Through  an  opening  in  the  ceiling 
a  wide  tube  is  passed,  one  end  of  which  conveys  the  foul  air 
outside,  and  the  other  projects  a  little  below  the  level  of  the 
ceiling.  The  gas-pipe  enters  on  one  side,  and  is  bent  so  as 
to  hang  perpendicularly  in  the  center  of  the  tube,  and  has 
an  annular  burner  at  the  lower  extremity,  surrounded  by  a 
glass  chimney,  which  is  supported  on  the  top  on  a  metal  cone 
piece,  secured  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the  tube  by  screws. 
This  arrangement  is  surrounded  by  a  hemispherical  glass 
shade  with  its  mouth  uppermost,  and  a  few  inches  below  the 
level  of  the  ceiling.     The  air  of  the  apartment  passes  off  ia 


294  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  strong  draught  occasioned   hy  the  burner,  and  a  fresh 
supply  of  air  is  admitted  at  the  lower  part  of  the  room. 

Oil- Gas,  Resin-Gas,  and  Water- Gas. 

When  tallow  or  oleaginous  matter  of  any  kind  is  raised  to 
a  certain  temperature,  it  is  resolved  into  various  gases,  of 
which  the  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  viz.,  olefiant 
gas  or  bicarburetted  hydrogen,  and  lighted  carburetted  hydro- 
gen, are  the  principal,  both  in  point  of  quantity  and  quality, 
for  the  purposes  of  illumination.  As  oil  contains  in  its  com- 
position a  portion  of  oxygen,  existing  most  probably  in  union 
"with  hydrogen  in  the  state  of  water,  that  substance  also  yields, 
during  its  destructive  distillation,  a  considerable  quantity  of 
carbonic  oxide,  as  well  as  traces  of  carbonic  acid,  hydrogen, 
and  even  nitrogen.  With  these  products,  all  of  which  are 
of  a  determinate  character,  is  found  in  greater  or  less  abund- 
ance a  quantity  of  a  very  inflammable  vapor,*  which  seems 
to  be  a  compound  of  carbon  and  hydrogen. 

Oil-gas  owes  its  illuminating  power  chiefly  to  the  proportion 
of  olefiant  gas  which  it  contains,  and  the  oleaginous  vapor 
which  is  diffused  through  it ;  and  as  both  of  these  ingredients 
vary  in  quantity  with  the  temperature  at  which  the  decom- 
position is  effected,  the  quality  of  the  oil-gas  is  extremely  fluc- 
tuating. When  the  temperature  is  too  high,  a  portion  of  the 
olefiant  gas  and  oleaginous  vapor  is  resolved,  by  the  deposition 
of  carbon,  into  light  carburetted  hydrogen  ;  and  though  the 
quantity  of  gas  from  a  given  portion  of  oil  is  thus  increased,  the 
quality  of  it  is  diminished  in  a  still  higher  ratio.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  temperature  be  rather  too  low,  a  larger  quantity  of 
olefiant  gas,  mixed  with  a  greater  proportion  of  oleaginous  va- 
por, is  obtained ;  but  as  the  latter  is  gradually  and  rapidly  con- 
densed when  the  gas  is  allowed  to  stand  over  water,  the  higher 

*The  oleaginous  vapor  alluded  to  consists,  according  to  the  experiments 
of  Mr.  Faraday,  of  two  distinct  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  One 
of  these  he  terms  bicarhurd  of  hydrogen,  which,  by  his  analysis,  is  composed 
of  six  proportions  of  carbon  and  three  of  hydrogen.  The  other  compound, 
to  which  Dr.  Thomson  has  given  the  name  of  quadro-carhuretted  hydrogen, 
consists  of  four  proportions  of  carbon  and  four  proportions  of  hydrogen, 
existing  in  a  different  state  of  aggregation  from  that  in  which  they  exist  in 
olefiant  gas,  the  elementary  constituents  of  which  are  in  the  same  propor- 
tion. 


Gas — Kinds.  .  295 

illuminating  power  of  this  richer  gas  is  more  than  counterbal- 
anced bj  the  deficiency  in  its  quantity,  and  the  deterioration 
to  which  it  is  liable  by  keeping. 

We  are  indebted  to  Dr.  Henry  of  Manchester  for  the  first 
analysis  of  the  aeriform  compounds  obtained  by  the  decom- 
position of  oil  by  heat ;  and  though  his  elaborate  researches 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  led  to  the  determination  of  the 
precise  products  of  that  decomposition,  they  furnish  data  from 
which  their  true  nature  may  be  inferred,  with  a  probability 
nearly  as  great  as  that  which  belongs  to  the  results  of  direct 
experiment.  The  principal  diflSculty  of  the  analysis  consists 
in  determining  the  condition  in  which  the  elementary  princi- 
ples of  carbon  and  hydrogen  exist  in  union  with  each  other, 
and  reconciling  the  various  suppositions  that  may  be  made 
respecting  the  compounds  thus  formed,  with  the  specific 
gravity  which  belongs  to  the  original  gas,  supposed  to  be 
produced  by  their  mixture. 

The  results  of  Dr.  Henry's  first  experiments  were  published 
in  1805  ;  but  it  was  not  till  about  ten  years  after  that  period 
that  an  apparatus  for  decomposing  oil,  on  a  large  scale  for 
economical  purposes,  was  constructed. 

Oil  being  decomposed  at  a  loss  of  nearly  fifty  per  cent., 
the  conversion  of  it  into  gas,  after  a  protracted  but  ineffectual 
competition  with  coal,  was  gradually  abandoned  on  the  large 
scale,  even  in  those  places  where,  from  the  interest  they  had 
in  the  whale-fisheries,  there  was  the  strongest  inducement  to 
foster  the  prejudices  which  prevailed  for  some  time  against 
the  use  of  coal-gas.  The  exaggerated  advantages  which  it  was 
pretended  would  be  derived  from  compressing  oil-gas  and  thus 
rendering  it  portable,  served  to  prolong  the  delusions  on  the 
subject ;  nor  were  these  delusions  fully  removed  until  a  de- 
monstration was  given  of  the  failure  of  the  scheme,  in  the 
decay  of  the  costly  edifices  and  expensive  apparatus  which 
had  been  constructed  for  carrying  it  into  efi*ect.  The  late 
Professor  Daniell  of  King's  College,  London,  also  contrived 
an  ingenious  form  of  apparatus  for  making  gas  from  resin ; 
but  the  plan  did  not  succeed  on  account  of  the  impossibilty 
of  competing  with  the  coal-gas  works. 

Of  late  years  a  new  process  of  gas-making  has  been  much 
discussed,  and  has  formed  the  subject  of  a  variety  of  patents. 
It  is  known  as  the  hydrocarbon  process  of  gas-making^  or 


296  Five  Black  Arts. 

more  briefly  water-gas.  The  principle  of  the  manufacture 
is  to  pass  steam  over  red-hot  coke,  by  which  it  is  resolved  into 
hydrogen  and  carbonic  oxide,  and  then  to  supply  these  in- 
flammable gases  with  the  carbon  required  for  their  illuminating 
power,  by  passing  them  through  a  retort  in  which  oil,  resin, 
tar,  naptha,  cannel  coal,  or  some  other  carbonaceous  substance, 
is  undergoing  decomposition  by  heat.  The  process  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  successful  with  resin,  but  better  results 
seem  to  have  been  attained  with  cannel  coal. 

Methods  for   determining   the  Illuminating  Power  of  the 

Gases. 

Having  described  the  various  manipulations  by  which  gas  is 
prepared,  both  from  coal  and  oil,  we  now  proceed  to  explain 
the  methods  which  have  been  adopted  for  determining  their 
respective  illuminating  powers  ;  it  being  by  these  methods  that 
we  acquire  a  knowledge  of  one  of  the  most  important  tests  by 
which  the  comparative  value  of  the  gases  can  be  ascertained. 

The  first  and  most  obvious  of  these  tests  is  to  determine 
the  intensity  of  the  light  which  the  gases  are  capable  of 
diff'using  during  their  combustion,  upon  a  white  and  smooth 
surface  directly  exposed  to  its  emanations.  The  determination 
of  that  intensity  is  obtained  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
accuracy,  not  by  a  direct  comparison  of  the  degree  of  illu- 
mination shed  on  two  separate  surfaces,  but  by  means  of  a 
contrivance,  first  proposed  by  Count  Rumford,  which  allows 
the  illuminated  surfaces  to  be  contrasted  with  each  other  on 
the  same  ground,  and  so  closely  adjoining  that  the  eye  can 
readily  detect  a  slight  difference  between  them.  This  con- 
trivance is  as  follows  :  Let  A  and  B,  fig.  12,  be  two  luminous 
objects ;  EF  a  smooth  and  white  surface,  having  the  same 
inclination  to  the  rays  of  light  emitted  by  A  and  B ;  and  CD 
an  opaque  cylindrical  rod  parallel  to  the  surface  EF ;  then 
it  is  evident  that  aa  and  bb  will  be  the  shadows  of  CD,  in 
reference  to  the  lights  A  and  B.  But  the  shadow  aa  being 
illuminated  by  the  light  B,  and  the  shadow  bb  by  the  light  A, 
it  follows  that  if  these  shadows  be  perfectly  the  same  in  point 
of  intensity  of  shade,  the  light  yielded  by  A  and  B  must  be 
the  same  in  degree.  If  the  shadows,  however,  be  different, 
one  of  the  lights  must  be  removed  either  further  from  EF  or 


GAS.] 


[  Plath  4. 


Ryll 

ill        liJ         Lll 


^    cm 


mi 


F^ISt 


Gas— Illuminating  Power.  297 

brought  nearer  to  it,  until  the  shades  seem  to  be  exactly  alike, 
when  the  light  shed  upon  EF  by  A  and  B  must,  in  point  of 
intensity,  be,  as  before,  the  same.  But  the  intensity  of  light, 
like  that  of  other  emanations  proceeding  in  straight  lines  from 
a  central  point,  being  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance, 
the  relative  degrees  of  light  emitted  by  A  and  B  must,  in 
conformity  with  that  principle,  be  proportional  to  the  squares 
of  their  respective  distances  from  the  surface  on  which  the 
shadows  are  projected.  Thus,  if  the  light  A  were  at  the 
distance  of  fifteen  feet,  and  the  light  B  at  the  distance  of 
twenty- five  feet,  their  relative  illuminating  powers  would  be 
as  the  square  of  fifteen  to  the  square  of  twenty-five  ;  that  is, 
as  225  to  625,  or  as  9  to  25.  As  the  quantity  of  gas  con- 
sumed in  the  same  time  to  yield  the  supposed  lights  might  be 
diff'^rent,  it  is  evident  that  a  correct  estimate  of  the  absolute 
value  of  the  gases  for  the  purpose  of  illumination  would  not 
be  duly  determined  unless  that  circumstance  were  also  taken 
into  account.  But  the  economical  value  of  the  gases,  yielding 
equal  degrees  of  light,  being  inversely  as  the  quantities  con- 
sumed, it  follows  that  that  value  will  be  directly  as  the  squares 
of  the  distances  at  which  the  shadows  are  the  same,  and  in- 
versely as  the  rate  of  consumption.  Thus,  if  we  now  sup- 
pose that  the  gas  yielding  the  light  A  consumed  three  cubic 
feet  in  the  same  time  that  the  gas  yielding  the  light  B  con- 
sumed five  cubic  feet,  the  value  of  the  former  would  be  to 
that  of  the  latter  as  ~  is  to  V »  or  ^s  three  to  five.  In  ob- 
taining the  necessary  data  for  determining  the  ratio  of  the 
lights,  it  may  be  proper  to  add  that  the  screen  on  which  the 
shadows  are  projected  should  be  guarded  with  the  utmost 
care  from  all  extraneous  light.  If  it  be  desired  to  contrast 
the  illuminating  power  of  a  gas-light  with  that  of  a  candle, 
the  comparison  is  easily  made.  If,  for  example,  the  gas-light 
give  a  shadow  equal  to  that  of  a  candle  placed  at  one-third 
the  distance,  the  light  of  the  gas  is  equal  to  the  light  of  nine 
candles.  If  the  candle  be  placed  at  one-fourth  the  distance 
of  the  gas-light,  the  latter  is  equal  to  sixteen  candles,  and 
so  on. 

Professor  Bunson  of  Marburg  has  contrived  a  photometer 
which  is  now  in  common  use  in  gas-works.  The  principle  of 
this  instrument  is  not  the  comparison  by  shadows,  which 
forms  a  delicate  experiment,  but  a  comparison  of  light  trans- 


298  Five  Black  Arts. 

mitted  through  a  translucent  surface  with  light  reflected  from 
an  opaque  surface.  For  this  purpose  a  disc  of  paper,  TO, 
fig.  13,  is  placed  between  the  two  lights  to  be  compared ;  an 
annular  portion  of  this  paper  T  is  made  translucent  by  means 
of  melted  spermaceti,  or  that  substance  dissolved  in  oil  of 
naptha,  while  a  central  disc  of  the  paper  0  being  left  un- 
touched by  the  composition,  remains  opaque.  Fine  cream- 
colored  letter-paper  answers  the  purpose  very  well,  and  the 
central  opaque  disc  may  be  about  the  size  of  half-a-crown. 
Now  it  is  evident  that  the  translucent  ring  will  be  illuminated 
by  a  light  behind  the  disc,  while  the  opaque  portion  is  illumi- 
nated by  a  light  in  front.  The  frame  on  which  the  disc  is 
mounted  is  moved  backward  and  forward  on  a  graduated  bar 
BB  between  the  two  lights  until  the  transmitted  and  reflected 
lights  appear  of  the  same  intensity.  The  pointer  P  then  shows 
the  division  over  which  the  disc  stands.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, tlie  lights  are  to  each  other  in  the  ratio  of  the  squares 
of  their  distance  from  the  disc 

The  determination  of  the  intensity  of  light  by  the  above 
simple  means  is  capable,  under  careful  management,  of  all 
the  precision  which  the  nature  of  the  problem  requires ;  it 
is  even  preferred  by  engineers  to  the  more  elaborate  method 
of  chemical  analysis.  The  latter  method  has  for  its  object 
to  ascertain  the  relative  value  of  the  gases  used  for  illumina- 
tion, by  finding  the  quantity  of  olefiaut  gas  which  they  con- 
tain under  equal  volumes  ;  it  being  assumed  that  the  illu- 
minating power  of  the  compound  combustible  gases  derived 
from  the  decomposition  of  oil  and  pit-coal  is  directly  propor- 
tional to  the  quantity  of  that  gas  existing  in  their  constitution. 
Though  that  supposition  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  certainty, 
or  even  of  probability,  we  shall  nevertheless  briefly  explain  the 
mode  of  analysis  which  has  been  recommended.  According 
to  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Henry,  chlorine  has  no  action  upon 
any  of  the  gases  obtained  from  oil  or  coal  when  the  influence 
of  light  is  carefully  excluded,  with  the  exception  of  olefiant 
gas ;  and  as  chlorine  and  olefiant  gas  unite  together  in  equal 
volumes,  this  property  affords  an  easy  mode  of  determining 
the  quantity  of  the  latter  which  may  exist  in  any  compound 
gas  of  which  it  forms  a  constituent  part.  All  that  is  required 
for  the  purpose  is  to  add  somewhat  more  chlorine  than  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  uniting  with  the  olefiant  gas,  and   to 


Gas — Illuminating  Power.  W^ 

allow  the  mixture  to  remain  about  fifteen  minutes  completely 
excluded  from  light.  The  extent  of  absorption  being  thus 
observed,  half  the  quantity  of  the  gas  which  has  disappeared 
of  the  whole  mixture  will  be  olefiant  gas.  Thus,  if  twenty 
parts  of  chlorine  by  measure  were  added  to  twenty-five  of 
coal-gas,  and  if  the  mixture,  after  being  allowed  to  remain  a 
sufficient  length  of  time  in  the  dark,  were  found  to  occupy 
thirty-six  measures,  the  absorption  would  be  nine  measures, 
and  consequently  the  coal-gas  must  have  contained  four  and 
a  half  measures  of  olefiant  gas,  or  eighteen  per  cent.  The 
quantity  per  cent,  of  olefiant  gas  is  determined  without  cal- 
culation, by  adding  to  fifty  measures  of  the  gas  to  be  ana- 
lyzed an  equal  volume  of  chlorine ;  when  the  diminution  of 
volume  in  the  graduated  jar,  is  the  quantity  which  the  gas 
contains  per  cent,  of  olefiant  gas.  Dr.  Fyfe  states  that  the 
illuminating  power  of  the  different  specimens  of  oil  and  coal- 
gas  which  he  subjected  to  this  test  bore  a  pretty  exact  ratio 
to  the  quantity  of  olefiant  gas  which  they  contained.  One 
great  advantage  to  be  derived  from  this  method  of  testing  the 
quality  of  any  species  of  carburetted  hydrogen  containing 
olefiant  gas  in  its  composition,  is,  that  it  admits  of  a  comparison 
being  made  between  gases  in  different  places  and  at  different 
times,  without  the  necessity  of  transporting  them  to  a  distance, 
and  making  a  simultaneous  examination  of  their  illuminating 
properties. 

Of  late  years,  bromine  has  been  substituted  for  chlorine  in 
the  above  analysis.  The  gas  is  passed  up  into  a  eudiometer 
tube,  and  the  carbonic  acid  is  removed  by  means  of  caustic 
potash  :  a  small  portion  of  bromine  is  dropped  in  and  shaken 
in  contact  with  the  gas.  Potash  is  again  added  to  remove 
the  bromine  vapors,  and  the  absorption  is  then  noted.  It  is 
stated  that  some  of  the  highly  illuminating  cannel-coal  gases 
are  condensed  by  this  process  as  much  as  12  or  14  per  cent. ; 
while  some  of  the  poorer  gases  not  more  than  4  or  5  per 
cent. 

The  specific  gravity  of  oil  and  coal  gas,  and  the  quantity 
of  oxygen  which  they  require  for  their  perfect  combustion, 
have  also  been  proposed  as  means  of  ascertaining  their  illumi- 
nating powers.  The  latter,  however,  even  if  it  were  a  correct 
test,  is  determined  with  considerable  difficulty  ;  and  that  little 
reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  former  may  be  inferred  from 


298  Five  Black  Arts. 

mitted  through  a  translucent  surface  with  light  reflected  from 
an  opaque  surface.  For  this  purpose  a  disc  of  paper,  TO, 
fig.  13,  is  placed  between  the  two  lights  to  be  compared ;  an 
annular  portion  of  this  paper  T  is  made  translucent  bj  means 
of  melted  spermaceti,  or  that  substance  dissolved  in  oil  of 
naptha,  while  a  central  disc  of  the  paper  0  being  left  un- 
touched by  the  composition,  remains  opaque.  Fine  cream- 
colored  letter-paper  answers  the  purpose  very  well,  and  the 
central  opaque  disc  may  be  about  the  size  of  half-a-crown. 
Now  it  is  evident  that  the  translucent  ring  will  be  illuminated 
by  a  light  behind  the  disc,  while  the  opaque  portion  is  illumi- 
nated by  a  light  in  front.  The  frame  on  which  the  disc  is 
mounted  is  moved  backward  and  forward  on  a  graduated  bar 
BB  between  the  two  lights  until  the  transmitted  and  reflected 
lights  appear  of  the  same  intensity.  The  pointer  P  then  shows 
the  division  over  which  the  disc  stands.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, the  lights  are  to  each  other  in  the  ratio  of  the  squares 
of  their  distance  from  the  disc 

The  determination  of  the  intensity  of  light  by  the  above 
simple  means  is  capable,  under  careful  management,  of  all 
the  precision  which  the  nature  of  the  problem  requires ;  it 
is  even  preferred  by  engineers  to  the  more  elaborate  method 
of  chemical  analysis.  The  latter  method  has  for  its  object 
to  ascertain  the  relative  value  of  the  gases  used  for  illumina- 
tion, by  finding  the  quantity  of  olefiant  gas  which  they  con- 
tain under  equal  volumes  ;  it  being  assumed  that  the  illu- 
minating power  of  the  compound  combustible  gases  derived 
from  the  decomposition  of  oil  and  pit-coal  is  directly  propor- 
tional to  the  quantity  of  that  gas  existing  in  their  constitution. 
Though  that  supposition  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  certainty, 
or  even  of  probability,  we  shall  nevertheless  briefly  explain  the 
mode  of  analysis  which  has  been  recommended.  According 
to  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Henry,  chlorine  has  no  action  upon 
any  of  the  gases  obtained  from  oil  or  coal  when  the  influence 
of  light  is  carefully  excluded,  with  the  exception  of  olefiant 
gas ;  and  as  chlorine  and  olefiant  gas  unite  together  in  equal 
volumes,  this  property  afibrds  an  easy  mode  of  determining 
the  quantity  of  the  latter  which  may  exist  in  any  compound 
.gas  of  which  it  forms  a  constituent  part.  All  that  is  required 
for  the  purpose  is  to  add  somewhat  more  chlorine  than  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  uniting  with  the  olefiant  gas,  and   to 


Gas — Illuminating  Power. 

allow  the  mixture  to  remain  about  fifteen  minutes  completely 
excluded  from  light.  The  extent  of  absorption  being  thus 
observed,  half  the  quantity  of  the  gas  which  has  disappeared 
of  the  whole  mixture  will  be  olefiant  gas.  Thus,  if  twenty- 
parts  of  chlorine  by  measure  were  added  to  twenty-five  of 
coal-gas,  and  if  the  mixture,  after  being  allowed  to  remain  a 
sufficient  length  of  time  in  the  dark,  were  found  to  occupy 
thirty-six  measures,  the  absorption  Avould  be  nine  measures, 
and  consequently  the  coal-gas  must  have  contained  four  and 
a  half  measures  of  olefiant  gas,  or  eighteen  per  cent.  The 
quantity  per  cent,  of  olefiant  gas  is  determined  without  cal- 
culation, by  adding  to  fifty  measures  of  the  gas  to  be  ana- 
lyzed an  equal  volume  of  chlorine ;  when  the  diminution  of 
volume  in  the  graduated  jar,  is  the  quantity  which  the  gas 
contains  per  cent,  of  olefiant  gas.  Dr.  Fyfe  states  that  the 
illuminating  power  of  the  different  specimens  of  oil  and  coal- 
gas  which  he  subjected  to  this  test  bore  a  pretty  exact  ratio 
to  the  quantity  of  olefiant  gas  which  they  contained.  One 
great  advantage  to  be  derived  from  this  method  of  testing  the 
quality  of  any  species  of  carburetted  hydrogen  containing 
olefiant  gas  in  its  composition,  is,  that  it  admits  of  a  comparison 
being  made  between  gases  in  different  places  and  at  different 
times,  without  the  necessity  of  transporting  them  to  a  distance, 
and  making  a  simultaneous  examination  of  their  illuminating 
properties. 

Of  late  years,  bromine  has  been  substituted  for  chlorine  in 
the  above  analysis.  The  gas  is  passed  up  into  a  eudiometer 
tube,  and  the  carbonic  acid  is  removed  by  means  of  caustic 
potash  :  a  small  portion  of  bromine  is  dropped  in  and  shaken 
in  contact  with  the  gas.  Potash  is  again  added  to  remove 
the  bromine  vapors,  and  the  absorption  is  then  noted.  It  is 
stated  that  some  of  the  highly  illuminating  cannel-coal  gases 
are  condensed  by  this  process  as  much  as  12  or  14  per  cent. ; 
while  some  of  the  poorer  gases  not  more  than  4  or  5  per 
cent. 

The  specific  gravity  of  oil  and  coal  gas,  and  the  quantity 
of  oxygen  which  they  require  for  their  perfect  combustion, 
have  also  been  proposed  as  means  of  ascertaining  their  illumi- 
nating powers.  The  latter,  however,  even  if  it  were  a  correct 
test,  is  determined  with  considerable  difficulty  ;  and  that  little 
reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  former  may  be  inferred  from 


300  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  fact  that  some  of  the  gases  which  are  component  parts  of 
oil  and  coal  gas  have  a  great  specific  gravity  without  posses- 
sing any  illuminating  power.  This  will  readily  be  perceived 
from  the  subjoined  table : 

Quantity  of 
Gases.  Specific  Grayity.  Oxygen  for 

100  volume*. 

Olefiant  gas -970  300 

Carburetted  hydrogen -556  300 

Hydrogen -069  50 

Carbonic  oxide -972  50 

Carbonic  acid 1-538  None. 

Of  these  gases,  carbonic  oxide  and  carbonic  acid  possess 
the  greatest  specific  gravity  ;  while  the  latter  is  not  only  des- 
titute of  illuminating  property,  but  calculated,  as  we  shall 
afterward  show,  to  deteriorate  to  a  great  extent  the  quality 
of  the  luminiferous  gases  with  which  it  may  happen  to  be 
mixed. 

There  are  cases,  however,  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  de- 
termine accurately  the  composition  of  a  sample  of  coal-gas, 
and  the  following  is  the  now  generally  adopted  method  of 
conducting  the  analysis.*  The  ingredients  or  impurities  which 
may  be  present  in  the  gas  are — 1,  Common  hydrogen ;  2, 
olefiant  gas  and  other  hydrocarbons ;  8,  light  carburetted 
hydrogen  ;  4,  carbonic  oxide  ;  5,  carbonic  acid  ;  6,  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen ;  7,  ammonia  ;  8,  oxygen  and  nitrogen 
derived  from  the  atmosphere.  A  qualitative  examination  is 
made  thus — the  proportion  of  ammonia  and  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  is  usually  very  minute,  and  in  most  cases  these 
gases  must  be  sought  for  by  placing  the  tests  for  their  presence 
for  some  time  in  a  current  of  the  gas.  In  searching  for 
ammonia  a  piece  of  moistened  litmus  paper  feebly  reddened 
is  placed  for  a  minute  in  a  jet  of  the  issuing  gas.  If  the 
blue  color  be  restored,  ammonia  is  present.  Paper  soaked 
in  a  solution  of  acetate  of  lead  may  be  subjected  to  a  similar 
trial.  If  it  turn  brown,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  present. 
The  presence  of  oxygen  is  detected  by  admitting  a  bubble  of 
the  deutoxide  of  nitrogen  into  a  tube  filled  with  the  gas  under 
trial,  and  looking  through  the  tube  obliquely  upon  a  sheet  of 
white  paper ;  very  small  traces  of  oxygen  may  thus  be  de- 

*  Abridged  from  Elements  of  Chemislry,  by  Professor  Miller,  of  King's 
College,  London. 


Gas — Illuminating  Power.  &0| 

tected  bj  the  red  tinge  produced,  owing  to  the  formation  of 
peroxide  of  nitrogen.     The  presence  of  carbonic  acid  may 
be  readily  detected  by  throwing  up  a  little  lime  water,  or 
solution  of  sub-acetate  of  lead,  into  the  gas  whilst  standing 
in  a  tube  over  mercury.     The  existence  of  the  other  gases 
may  be  assumed,  as  they  are  certain  to  be  present  in  greater 
or  less  quantity.     The  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  ammonia 
being  neglected,  and  supposing  that  oxygen  and  carbonic 
acid  are  found  to  be  present,  seven  diflferent  gases  are  there- 
fore supposed  to  exist  in  the  mixture.     The  following  method 
may   be   adopted   for   their   quantitative   determination : — 
1.  Oxygen, — A  volume  of  the  gas  is  confined  over  mercury, 
and  its  bulk  is  measured  with  due  attention  to  temperature 
and  pressure.     A  piece  of  moist  phosphorus,  which  has  been 
melted  upon  the  end  of  a  long  platinum  wire  to  serve  as  a 
handle,  is  introduced  from  below  through  the  mercury  into 
the  tube.     After  twenty- four  hours  the  phosphorus  is  with- 
drawn, when  the  amount  of  absorption  indicates  the  propor- 
tion of  oxygen  which  was  present.     2.   Carbonic  Acid. — 
This  gas  is  determined  in  a  similar  manner,  substituting  a  ball 
of  caustic  potash  for  the  phosphorus;  the  second  diminution 
in  bulk  shows  the  proportion  of  carbonic  acid.     3.   Olefiant 
Gas  and  Heavy  Hydrocarbons. — These  gases  are  absorbed 
by  introducing  a  third  ball,  consisting  of  porous  coke,  mois- 
tened with  fuming  sulphuric  acid.     It  is  necessary,  however, 
before  reading  off  the  volume  of  the  gas,  to  introduce  a  ball 
of  potash  a  second  time,  to  withdraw  the  vapor  of  an  hy- 
drous sulphuric  acid,  which  possesses  sufficient  volatility  to 
introduce  a  serious  error  by  dilating  the  bulk  of  the  gas,  un- 
less it  be  completely  removed.      The  total  amount  of  ab- 
sorption will  indicate  the  proportion  of  olefiant  gas,  together 
with  the  vapors  of  condensible  hydrocarbons.     4.  Carbonic 
Oxide. — The  separation  of  carbonic  oxide   from  the  other 
gases  is  not  easily  done  with  accuracy.     The  gas  may  be  di- 
vided  into  two   portions,  one  of  which  is  to  be   carefully 
measured  as  it  stands  over  mercury,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
a  solution  of  subchloride  of  copper  in  hydrochloric  acid  is  to 
be  added,  and  the  mixture  briskly  agitated ;  the  gas  is  then 
transferred  to  a  second  graduated  tube,  also  standing  over 
mercury,  and  a  ball  of  potash  is  introduced  for  the  purpose 
of  absorbing  the  vapors  of  hydrochloric  acid  with  which  the 


302  Five  Black  Arts. 

gas  is  saturated ;  the  bulk  of  the  gas  may  then  be  read  off, 
and  the  volume  of  carbonic  acid  may  be  known  by  the  loss 
in  bulk.  6.  Nitrogen,  Carhuretted  Hydrogen,  and  Hydro- 
gen.— In  determining  the  proportion  of  these  gases,  that  of 
carbonic  oxide  may  also  be  ascertained,  for  which  purpose  a 
portion  of  coal-gas,  in  which  the  carbonic  oxide  is  still  present, 
is  transferred  to  a  siphon-eudiometer,  and  its  bulk  is  measured  : 
it  is  then  mixed  with  twice  its  volume  of  oxygen,  and  the 
bulk  of  the  mixed  gases  is  again  measured :  the  mixture  is 
then  exploded  by  means  of  the  electric  spark,  and  ihQ  bulk 
is  a  third  time  measured  :  call  this  diminution  in  bulk  a,  next 
inject  a  small  quantity  of  a  strong  solution  of  potash,  and 
the  resulting  condensation  due  to  the  absorption  of  carbonic 
acid  may  be  called  6;  the  remaining  gases,  c,  consist  of  oxygen 
in  excess  and  nitrogen ;  the  quantity  of  oxygen  in  excess  is 
ascertained  by  mixing  the  residual  gas  with  twice  its  bulk 
of  pure  hydrogen,  and  a  second  time  causing  the  electric 
spark  to  pass  ;  one-third  of  the  condensation  observed  will 
be  due  to  the  excess  of  oxygen  ;  on  deducting  this  excess 
from  the  residue  c,  the  difference  gives  the  quantity  of  nitro- 
gen. The  difference  between  the  amount  of  the  oxygen  thus 
found  to  be  in  excess,  and  that  originally  introduced,  will  of 
course  represent  the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed ;  call  this 
d.  We  have  now  all  the  data  for  calculating  the  proportion 
of  carhuretted  hydrogen,  of  hydrogen,  and  of  carbonic  oxide, 
which  are  present  in  the  mixture.  Let  x  represent  the 
quantity  of  light  carhuretted  hydrogen ;  this  gas  requires 
twice  its  own  volume  of  oxygen  for  complete  combustion,  and 
furnishes  its  own  volume  of  carbonic  acid,  which  requires  an 
equal  volume  of  oxygen  for  its  formation,  or  half  the  amount 
consumed ;  the  other  half  of  the  oxygen  being  required  by 
the  hydrogen,  which  condenses  in  the  form  of  water,  2  x  will 
be  the  diminution  in  bulk  of  oxygen  which  occurs  on  detona- 
tion. Again,  when  hydrogen  is  converted  into  water,  it  re- 
quires half  its   bulk   of  oxygen,  and   both   are   condensed 

entirely.     If  y  represent  the  bulk  of  the  hydrogen,  -~  will 

be  the  diminution  in  bulk  of  the  mixed  gases  on  detonation, 
which  is  occasioned  be  the  hydrogen  in  the  mixture.  Let  z 
represent  the  volume  of  carbonic  oxide  present ;  carbonic 
oxide,  for  conversion  into  carbonic  acid,  requires  half  its  bulk 


Gas — Hints  Respecting.  303 

of  oxvgen,  the  carbonic  acid  produced  occupying  the  same 

bulk  as  the  carbonic  oxide.     ^  will   therefore    indicate    the 

condensation  which  occurs  on  firing  the  mixture.  The  total 
condensation  in  bulk  {a)  which  occurs  on  firing  a  mixture  of 
light  carburetted  hydrogen,  hydrogen,  and  carbonic  oxide, 
will  consequently  admit  of  thus  being  represented — 

(1.)   a  =  2x  +  |  +  ?. 

Further,  the  quantity  of  the  carbonic  acid  formed  by  detona- 
tion, 5,  is  composed  of  a  volume  of  carbonic  acid  equal  in 
bulk  to  the  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  and  a  volume  equal 
to  that  of  the  carbonic  oxide,  so  that  the  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid  may  be  thus  indicated — 

(2.)    h^x-\-z. 

And  lastly,  the  oxygen  consumed,  c?,  will  be  composed  of  the 
following  quantities :     Light  carburetted  hydrogen,  twice  its 

bulk   ^  "•  '  ^ — '^— '•^ i^"i^  '^-  iv.^iu  y 


2  x;  hydrogen  half  its  bulk,  ^  ;  carbonic   oxide,  half 

Ik,  I ;  or 
be  the  following 


2 

its  bulk,  -  ;  or  the  total  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed  will 


(3.;  0  =  2. +1  +  1- 

From  these  three  equations  the  values  of  x,  y,  z,  are  deter- 
mined : 

a4-b 

y  —  a  —  c 

a  +  45 

BxnU  respecting  the  Improvement  of  Coal-  Gas, 

Of  all  the  combustible  bodies  having  an  elementary  charac- 
ter, carbon  and  hydrogen  are  not  only  the  most  widely  and 
copiously  diiOfused  throughout  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature, 


304  Five  Black  Arts. 

but  best  adapted  for  the  evolution  of  light  during  their  com- 
bustion. It  is  only,  however,  when  they  are  united  together 
in  due  proportion  that  they  answer  the  purpose  most  eflfectu- 
ally ;  and,  indeed,  in  a  separate  state  their  illuminating  powers 
are  so  feeble,  that  even  when  their  combustion  is  accelerated 
and  rendered  more  perfect  by  the  presence  of  oxygen,  the 
light  which  they  yield  is  yet  unfit  for  many  of  the  useful  ends 
to  which  light  is  subservient.  The  substances  in  which  carbon 
and  hydrogen  are  united  in  the  best  proportion  for  the  pro- 
duction of  light  are  pit-coal  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  oils 
and  fatty  matter  in  the  animal  and  vegetable. 

The  great  abundance  of  coal,  and  the  comparative  cheapness 
at  which  it  can  be  obtained,  give  it  a  decided  advantage  in  point 
of  economy  over  oleaginous  matter,whether  of  animal  or  vege- 
table origin ;  while  the  processes  of  decomposing  it,  with  the 
view  of  converting  it  into  a  volatile  and  elastic  product,  have 
been  so  much  improved  as  to  render  the  gas  which  it  yields 
equally  fit  for  the  purposes  of  illumination  with  the  more  costly 
gases  obtained  from  the  oils. 

The  gas  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  coal  and  oleagi- 
nous matter  at  a  high  temperature  is  a  compound  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  and  consists  chiefly  of  two  gases,  in  which  these 
elementary  substances  exist  in  definite  proportions.  One  of 
these  gases  is  termed  carburetted  hydrogen,  and  the  other 
defiant  gas  or  bicarburetted  hydrogen.  The  former  contains 
one  atom  of  carbon  united  with  two  atoms  of  hydrogen,  and 
the  latter  an  atom  of  each  of  these  elements. 

Of  these  two  compounds  of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  that 
which  contains  the  largest  proportion  of  the  latter  element  is 
found  to  yield  during  its  combustion  the  most  brilliant  light, 
and  that  too  for  a  longer  period  of  time.  And,  indeed,  so 
great  is  the  difference  in  these  respects,  that  the  hydrogen 
may  not  improperly  be  regarded  as  the  mere  solvent  or  ve- 
hicle of  the  carbon,  acting  the  part  of  wick,  and  thus  pre- 
senting that  substance  in  a  state  sufficiently  comminuted  for 
its  more  perfect  combustion.  Accordingly,  the  more  abun- 
dantly the  hydrogen  is  impregnated  with  carbon  the  greater 
may  we  expect  to  be  its  illuminating  power,  and  the  fitter  in 
every  respect  for  yielding  artificial  light.  These  views  are 
fully  supported  by  experiment ;  for  not  only  is  the  brilliancy 
of  the  light  modified  by  the  quantity  of  carbon  held  in  sola- 


Gas— Hints  Respecting.  305 

tion  by  the  hydrogen,  but  the  time  which  a  given  portion  of 
the  gas  takes  to  consume  away  by  combustion  is  affected  by 
it  in  a  still  greater  degree. 

To  determine  in  what  ratio  the  illuminating  power  of  the 
gases  obtained  both  from  oil  and  coal  was  reduced  by  diluting 
them  in  various  proportions  with  hydrogen,  we  instituted  a 
series  of  experiments,  the  results  of  which  are  of  importance 
inasmuch  as  they  indicate  not  only  that  the  mixture  is  dete- 
riorated, but  that  the  same  quantity  of  carbonaceous  matter 
yields  less  light  the  more  largely  it  is  diluted  with  hydrogen. 

In  the  first  experiment  we  took  a  portion  of  coal-gas  of 
the  specific  gravity  '67,  which  we  found  to  consume  at  the 
rate  of  4400  cubic  inches  per  hour,  and  yielded  the  light  of 
eleven  candles,  being  400  cubic  inches  per  hour  for  the  light 
of  one  candle.  This  gas  being  diluted  with  a  fourth  part  of 
its  bulk  of  pure  hydrogen,  acquired  the  specific  gravity  -55, 
and  wasted  away  at  the  rate  of  6545  cubic  inches  per  hour, 
yielding  the  light  of  ten  candles.  As  a  fifth  part  of  the 
compound  gas  was  hydrogen,  the  remaining  four-fifths,  amount- 
ing to  5236  cubic  inches,  was  the  quantity  of  the  coal-gas  which 
in  its  diluted  state  gave  the  light  of  ten  candles  for  an  hour  ; 
so  that  524  cubic  inches  of  the  original  coal-gas  were  requisite 
to  give  the  light  of  one  candle  for  the  same  time.  But  in  its 
unmixed  state,  400  cubic  inches  were  suflBcient  to  give  the 
light  of  one  candle  for  an  hour ;  and,  consequently,  the  de- 
terioration occasioned  by  the  dilution  was  in  the  ratio  of  524 
to  400,  or  of  100  to  76,  being  24  per  cent.  It  must  be 
distinctly  kept  in  view  that  the  deterioration  has  been  reck- 
oned, not  with  respect  to  the  whole  volume  of  the  mixture 
(in  which  case  it  would  have  been  39  per  cent.),  but  simply 
in  reference  to  the  coal-gas  itself ;  and  therefore  the  experi- 
ment, so  far  as  it  goes,  justifies  us  in  adopting  the  conclusion, 
that  had.  the  hydrogen  existed  originally  in  union  with  the 
coal-gas,  the  latter  would  have  improved  in  quality  24  per 
cent,  by  its  abstraction ;  because  the  residuary  portion  would 
not  only  have  lasted  longer,  but  yielded  during  its  combustion 
a  superior  light. 

In  a  second  experiment,  conducted  in  a  similar  manner,  in 
which  the  proportion  of  hydrogen  was  one-third  of  the  quan- 
tity of  the  coal-gas,  the  deterioration  was  27^er  cent. ;  in 
a  third  experiment,  the  proportion  of  hydrogen  ibeing  a  half  of 

20 


306  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  volume  of  the  coal-gas,  the  deterioration  amounted  to  31 
per  cent. ;  and  in  a  fourth  experiment,  the  quantity  of  hydro- 
gen being  exactly  equal  to  that  of  the  coal-gas,  the  deterio- 
ration extended  to  36  per  cent. 

These  results  indicate  a  progressive  deterioration  in  the 
quality  of  coal-gas  by  the  admixture  of  hydrogen  ;  and  the 
important  conclusion  to  which  they  lead  is,  that  the  abstrac- 
tion or  removal  of  the  latter,  though  diminishing  the  entire 
volume,  would  improve  the  nature  of  the  residuary  portion 
not  only  in  a  higher  ratio  than  the  loss  which  the  whole  sus- 
tained in  its  bulk,  but  render  that  portion  capable  of  yielding, 
for  a  longer  period  of  time,  a  greater  light  than  it  could  have 
done  in  its  original  state.  Hence  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
illuminating  power  of  coal-gas,  whether  considered  with  re- 
spect to  the  cost  of  its  production  or  the  intensity  of  its  light, 
admits  of  being  improved  ;  first,  by  impregnating  the  hydro- 
geneous  element  more  largely  with  carbon ;  secondly,  by 
preventing  the  disengagement  of  hydrogen  in  a  free  state 
during  the  carbonization  of  the  coal ;  and,  lastly,  by  detach- 
ing a  portion  of  that  gas  from  coal-gas  when  it  already  exists 
in  admixture  with  it. 

The  first  of  these  modes  of  improvement  seems  to  be  prac- 
ticable, at  least  to  a  certain  extent,  by  thoroughly  drying  the 
coal  before  it  is  introduced  into  the  retorts,  and  modifying  the 
pressure  under  which  the  gas  is  generated ;  the  second,  by 
preventing  the  gas  after  its  formation  from  being  exposed  to 
a  high  temperature  by  allowing  it  to  pass  over  very  hot  sur- 
faces, the  effect  of  which  is  to  deprive  it  of  carbon.  The 
second  object  may  also  be  assisted  by  arresting  the  process  of 
distillation  at  an  earlier  period  than  is  usually  practiced,  hy- 
drogen and  carbonic  oxide  being  the  products  which  predomi- 
nate during  the  last  periods  of  decomposition.  On  this  point, 
however,  the  interests  of  the  public  and  of  the  manufacturer 
are  at  variance.  The  consumer  pays  by  measure,  and  hence 
it  is  the  interest  of  the  manufacturer  to  carry  on  the  process 
of  distillation  as  long  as  possible,  for,  by  so  doing,  not  only 
does  he  increase  the  quantity  of  gas  but  he  improves  the 
quality  of  the  coke.  With  respect  to  the  third  mode  of 
improvement,  we  are  unfortunately,  in  the  present  state  of 
our  knowledge,  acquainted  with  no  method  of  detaching 
hydrogen  from  the  gases  with  which  it  is  mixed  in  oil  or  coal 


Gas — Hints  Respecting.  307 

gas  that  would  not  impair  the  illuminating  power  of  these 
gases  to  a  greater  extent  perhaps  than  the  benefit  that  would 
be  derived  from  the  removal  of  the  hydrogen.  A  plan  has 
been  proposed  by  Mr.  Lowe  to  increase  the  quantity  of  car- 
bon in  the  gas  by  impregnating  it  with  the  vapor  of  coal  nap- 
tha ;  for  which  purpose  it  was  proposed  to  fill  the  wet  gas 
meter  at  the  house  of  the  consumer  with  purified  naptha,  and 
to  maintain  it  at  the  same  height  by  means  of  a  reservoir 
connected  with  the  meter ,  by  which  means  the  gas  would  be 
measured  and  saturated  with  naptha  at  the  same  time.  A 
more  practical  plan  was  to  pass  the  gas  through  an  ornamental 
vase  containing  a  sponge  saturated  with  naptha,  and  placed 
at  some  point  between  the  meter  and  the  burner. 

To  determine  the  diminution  of  the  illuminating  power 
produced  by  separating  the  particles  of  the  inflammable  gag 
during  its  combustion,  and  thus  diminishing  the  temperature 
of  the  flame,  it  occurred  to  the  writer  of  the  present  article 
that  nitrogen,  having  neither  the  property  of  supporting  com- 
bustion nor  of  adding  to  the  quantity  of  combustible  matter  sub- 
mitted to  that  process,  was  well  fitted  to  answer  for  the  intend- 
ed purpose;  and,  accordingly,  on  mixing  coal-gas  of  ordinary 
quality  (which,  when  burnt  alone,  yielded  the  light  of  twelve 
candles  when  it  consumed  5400  cubic  inches  per  hour)  with 
varying  portions  of  nitrogen,  results  were  obtained  which  im- 
plied that  the  diminution  of  the  intensity  of  the  light  proceed- 
ed in  a  ratio  much  more  rapid  than  was  observed  when  the 
gas  was  diluted  with  hydrogen.  Thus,  when  six  volumes  of 
the  coal-gas  were  mixed  with  one  volume  of  nitrogen,  the 
expenditure  per  hour  was  6000  cubic  inches,  and  the  light 
equivalent  to  that  of  nine  candles,  being  667  cubic  inches 
per  hour  for  the  light  of  one  candle.  But  one-sixth  of  the 
whole  being  nitrogen,  the  remaining  five-sixths,  amounting 
to  556  cubic  inches,  was  the  quantity  of  the  coal-gas  which, 
in  its  diluted  state,  afforded  the  light  of  a  candle  for  an  hour. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  quantity  of  the  coal-gas  requisite,  in 
its  unadulterated  state,  to  give  an  equal  degree  of  illumina- 
tion being  ^  j|%  or  450  cubic  inches,  it  follows  that  the  de- 
terioration was  in  the  ratio  of  556  to  450,  or  100  to  81 
nearly. 

By  diluting  the  same  coal-gas  with  other  proportions  of 
nitrogen  as  subjoined,  and  afterward  applying  to  each  of  the 


Volumes  of 

Volumes  of 

Coal-gas. 

Nitrogen. 

60 

0 

60 

10 

60 

12 

60 

15 

60 

20 

60 

30 

60 

60 

SOS  Five  Black  Arts. 

results  the  same  kind  of  reduction  as  that  which  we  have  al- 
ready made,  we  have  deduced  the  following  table,  which  ex- 
hibits the  gradual  deterioration  of  the  illuminating  power  of 
the  same  quantity  of  coal-gas,  produced  by  the  mere  separa- 
tion of  the  atoms  of  the  gas  during  its  combustion. 

Illuminating 
Power. 

100 

81 
69 
55 

3T 
29 

When  carbonic  acid  was  used  instead  of  nitrogen,  similar 
results  were  obtained ;  only  the  deterioration  was  considerably 
greater.  Thus,  when  five  volumes  of  the  coal-gas  were  mixed 
with  one  volume  of  carbonic  acid,  the  illuminating  power  was 
reduced  from  100  to  30,  whereas  in  the  case  of  the  nitrogen 
it  was  from  100  to  69.  It  is  therefore  a  fortunate  circum- 
stance that  carbonic  acid,  which  is  so  apt  to  be  generated 
during  the  production  of  coal-gas,  and  has  so  debasing  an 
influence  upon  its  illuminating  power,  is  readily  absorbed  by 
a  variety  of  substances ;  while  nitrogen,  the  less  injurious  as 
well  as  the  less  abundant  accompaniment,  cannot  be  separated 
from  the  other  gases  with  which  it  may  exist  in  mixture  by 
any  process  yet  known. 

Deterioration  of  6ras  hy  keeping  it  after  it  is  prepared. 

Both  oil  and  coal  gas  suffer,  by  keeping,  a  gradual  loss  in 
their  power  of  illumination,  which  seems  to  increase  in  a  more 
rapid  ratio  than  the  time  they  are  kept.  The  deterioration, 
though  greatest  when  the  gases  are  allowed  to  stand  over 
water,  takes  place  in  a  considerable  degree  even  when  they 
are  kept  over  oil,  or  in  air-tight  vessels.  Hence  it  may  be 
presumed  that  the  carbon  held  in  solution  by  the  hydrogen 
is  separated  from  that  element,  partly  by  its  own  gravity,  and 
partly  perhaps  by  solution  in  the  water,  or  by  condensation 
in  the  liquid  form. 


Gas — Economy.  ^9 

To  whatever  cause  the  deterioration  is  owing,  the  fact  itself 
is  undoubted.  Thus,  an  oil-gas  which,  when  newly  prepared, 
had  the  specific  gravity  1*054,  gave  the  light  of  a  candle  for 
an  hour  when  it  consumed  200  cubic  inches ;  kept  two  days, 
it  gave  the  same  light  with  a  consumpt  of  215  cubic  inches 
per  hour ;  and  kept  four  days,  it  required  for  the  same  light 
240  cubic  inches  per  hour.  In  the  case  of  a  portion  of  coal- 
gas,  which,  when  newly  prepared,  required  404  cubic  inches 
to  yield  the  light  of  a  candle  for  an  hour,  the  same  gas  kept 
two  days  required  430  cubic  inches ;  and  kept  four  days, 
460  cubic  inches  to  yield  the  same  light.  These  results  in- 
dicate a  progressive  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  gases, 
increasing  with  the  length  of  time  they  are  kept ;  and  it  is 
deserving  of  remark,  that  in  both  gases  the  diminution  of  the 
illuminating  power  decreases  in  a  faster  ratio  than  the  time 
increases.  After  being  kept  three  weeks,  the  oil-gas  was  so 
much  debased  in  quality  that  it  required  606  cubic  inches  of 
it  to  yield  the  light  of  a  candle  for  an  hour ;  and  hence  its 
illuminating  power  was  reduced  to  one-third  of  what  it  was 
when  the  gas  was  newly  made.  From  these  experiments  it 
may  obviously  be  inferred  that  both  oil  and  coal  gas  should' 
be  used  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  prepared. 

Economy  of  Coal-  Qas, 

Among  the  advantages  which  have  resulted  from  the  intro- 
duction of  coal-gas,  we  may  reckon,  first,  its  comparative 
cheapness;  and,  secondly,  its  superiority  to  all  the  other 
modes  of  artificial  illumination. 

In  forming  a  comparative  estimate  of  the  cost  of  coal-gas 
and  that  of  the  other  means  employed  for  procuring  artificial 
light,  we  may  contrast  it  with  the  expense  of  wax,  tallow,  and 
oil,  the  ordinary  substances  used  for  the  purpose.  It  deserves 
to  be  remarked,  however,  that  while  the  price  of  coal,  in 
consequence  of  the  regular  and  abundant  supply  of  that 
article,  is  liable  to  little  fluctuation,  the  cost  of  wax,  tallow, 
and  oil,  on  account  of  the  more  precarious  nature  of  the 
sources  from  which  they  are  obtained,  varies  exceedingly  in 
different  seasons.  The  very  extensive  use,  too,  into  which 
coal-gas  has  been  brought  has  produced  a  considerable  effect 
upon  the  price  of  oil  and  tallow,  as  well  as  of  wax ;  so  that 


310  Five  Black  Akts. 

a  comparative  estimate  of  the  expense  of  procuring  the  same 
extent  of  illumination  from  coal-gas  and  from  these  substances 
must  appear  less  favorable  to  the  former  than  would  have 
been  the  case  had  the  comparison  been  made  when  gas  was 
first  introduced.  But  by  way  of  illustration,  the  approximative 
economy  of  the  substances  commonly  employed  for  illumination 
may  be  contrasted  as  follows  : — Supposing  that  5  cubic  feet 
of  gas  per  hour  give  a  light  equal  to  that  of  12  candles,  then 
1000  cubic  feet,  if  burnt  at  the  rate  of  5  feet  per  hour,  would 
give  a  light  equal  to  that  of  12  candles  for  200  hours,  at  the 
cost  of  4«.  6^.,  which  is  about  the  average  price  of  gas  in 
London  per  1000  feet  at  the  present  time  (1855).  Suppose 
the  candles  to  cost  9d.  per  lb.,  then  2  lbs.  of  candles,  6  to 
the  lb.,  would  burn  for  6f  hours  at  the  cost  of  Is.  6d.,  or  60 
lbs.  would  burn  200  hours,  at  the  cost  of  21.  5s.  Assuming 
wax  to  be  three  times  the  price  of  the  candles,  the  cost  of 
wax  candles  for  200  hours  would  be  61.  15s. ;  and  taking 
sperm  oil  at  8s.  per  gallon,  4  gallons  would  give  a  light  equal 
to  that  of  12  candles  for  200  hours,  at  a  cost  of  11.  12s. 
So  that,  by  comparing  the  cost  of  these  various  sources  of 
light  for  equal  periods  of  time,  we  have — 

L.  s.  d. 

For  wax  candles,  the  cost  of 6  15  0 

For  tallow  candles,         *'         2    5  0 

For  sperm  oil,  "        112  0 

For  gas,  "        0    4  6 

The  expense  of  gas,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  other 
sources  of  light,  will  be — 

Gas 1-0  Candles 100 

Oil 7.1  Wax 300 

In  the  above  comparison  we  have  taken  London  gas  as  the 
standard,  which  is  scarcely  fair,  seeing  that  this  gas  is  inferior 
in  illuminating  power  to  that  of  most  other  towns. 

But  the  light  obtained  from  coal-gas  is  not  only  procured 
at  a  smaller  expense  ;  it  is  also  more  convenient  for  most 
purposes  than  the  light  yielded  by  other  substances.  In  the 
ordinary  mode  of  lighting  by  tallow  and  oil,  the  light  derived 
from  their  combustion  cannot  be  diminished  in  intensity  with- 
out considerable  disadvantage  and  trouble ;  whereas  in  the 
case  of  gas,  it  may  be  reduced  in  an  instant  from  the  most 


Gas — Secondary  Products.  311 

perfect  splendor  to  the  feeblest  degree  of  illumination  by  the 
simple  adjustment  of  the  stop-cock.  The  advantages  arising 
from  this  easy  method  of  regulating  the  light  of  gas,  when  it 
is  used  in  the  chambers  of  the  sick,  and  indeed  in  all  apart- 
ments where  a  variable  but  uninterrupted  supply  of  light 
must  be  kept  up,  can  only  be  duly  estimated  by  those  who 
have  experienced  them.  To  every  branch  of  manufacturing 
industry  which  requires  a  steady  and  powerful  light,  the 
benefits  which  have  resulted  from  the  introduction  of  coal-gas 
are  not  less  important.  In  many  operations  the  light  may  be 
conveyed  by  means  of  flexible  pipes,  connected  together  with 
ball-and-socket  joints,  so  as  to  be  almost  in  contact  with  the 
fabric  it  is  intended  to  illuminate,  without  the  slightest  risk 
of  injury ;  and  it  may  be  kept  in  the  same  state  for  many 
hours  in  succession,  or  altered,  as  circumstances  may  render 
necessary. 

For  lighting  churches,  theaters,  and  other  public  buildings, 
where  a  strong  and  uniform  light  is  required,  gas  answers  the 
purpose  more  effectually  than  any  other  mode  of  illumination  ; 
partly  from  the  facility  of  its  application,  and  partly  from  the 
diversified  and  tasteful  manner  in  which  the  jets  of  flame  may 
be  exhibited  in  various  kinds  of  burners. 

As  a  street  light,  its  superiority  is  universally  admitted ; 
and  from  that  application  of  gas  it  cannot  be  doubted  that 
the  metropolis,  and  other  large  towns,  have  derived  great  ad- 
ditional security  against  the  perpetration  of  nocturnal  crimes, 
as  well  as  the  means  of  carrying  on  the  ordinary  business  of 
life,  during  the  evening  with  nearly  the  same  convenience  as 
during  the  full  light  of  day. 

Secondary  Products. 

The  chemistry  of  the  gas  manufacture  has  been  for  some 
years  in  a  state  of  mutation,  the  effect  of  which  has  been 
to  bring  about  important  changes  in  the  nature  and  amount 
of  the  secondary  products.  We  may,  however,  refer  to  the 
methods  of  disposing  of  the  usual  secondary  products,  namely, 
the  coke,  the  tar,  and  the  ammoniacal  liquor.  A  ton  of  New- 
castle coals  of  the  average  weight  of  2240  lbs.  yields — 


3i2  Five  Black  Arts. 

1  Chaldron  of  coke =  1494  lbs. 

12  Gallons  of  tar =     136  " 

10  Gallons  of  ammoniacal  liquor =     100  " 

9000  to  10,000  Cubic  feet  of  Gas =    291  « 

Loss =    220  « 

2249  lbs. 

It  is  found,  on  an  average,  that  1  cwt.  of  coals  yields  about 
2  bushels  of  coke.  About  one-fourth  of  the  quantity  of  coke 
produced  is  used  as  fuel  for  heating  the  retorts,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  sold.  The  tar  and  ammoniacal  liquor  or  gas-water 
separate  in  the  tar  cistern,  the  tar  forming  the  lower  stratum. 
This  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  patent  fuel  and  of  creasote, 
and  as  a  rough  paint  for  out-door  work,  100  lbs.  of  tar  yield 
by  distillation  about  26  lbs.  of  an  oily  liquid  known  as  coal-oil. 
A  light  product  first  distils  over,  which  is  called  coal-naptha ; 
the  remaining  pitch  is  used  for  paying  the  bottoms  of  ships, 
wooden  piles,  etc.  The  coal-naptha  is  used  for  dissolving 
caoutchouc,  and  for  burning  in  the  naptha-lamp.  The  ammo- 
niacal liquor  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sal-ammoniac, 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  prussian-blue.  The  presence  of 
cyanogen  in  the  ammoniacal  liquor  has  led  to  its  employment 
in  the  manufacture  of  ferrocyanide  of  iron  or  prussian-blue. 
It  is  stated  that  a  gallon  of  ammoniacal  liquor,  when  satu- 
rated with  sulphuric  acid,  contains  enough  of  cyanogen  and 
cyanates  to  form,  with  a  salt  of  iron,  24  grains  of  prussian- 
blue. 

The  secondary  products  of  the  Edinburgh  gas-works  are 
turned  to  account  at  the  chemical  works,  situate  at  a  distance 
of  about  two  miles  from  them,  the  gas-works  being  on  a  lower 
level.  They  are,  however,  connected  by  a  line  of  pipes,  and 
the  gas-liquor  is  lifted  over  the  shoulder  of  the  Calton  Hill 
by  means  of  a  force-pump.  The  difference  of  level  is  then 
sufficient  to  carry  it  to  the  chemical  works.  The  liquor  is 
left  for  the  tar  to  subside,  but  the  ammoniacal  liquor,  consist- 
ing of  an  impure  solution  of  carbonate  and  hydrosulphuret 
of  ammonia,  still  contains  a  portion  of  tar,  which  is  got  rid 
of  by  distillation.  The  larger  portion  of  the  distilled  liquid 
is  converted  into  sal-ammoniac,  and  a  portion  into  sulphate 
of  ammonia.  In  order  to  obtain  the  sal-ammoniac,  the  liquor 
is  neutralized  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  is  then  pumped  into 
large  cauldrons  and  evaporated  to  the  crystalizing  point,  when 


Gas — Secondary  Products.  818 

it  is  drawn  oflf  into  large  vats,  and  on  cooling  deposits  small 
feathery  crystals ;  these  are  transferred  to  a  stone  chest,  and 
are  dried  by  the  heat  of  a  furnace  below.  The  salt  then 
resembles  brown  sugar ;  it  is  mixed  with  charcoal  powder  for 
the  purpose  of  reducing  any  oxide  of  iron  which  may  be 
present,  and  thus  to  get  rid  of  the  brown  tint  in  the  process 
of  sublimation.  The  subliming  vessels  resemble  a  man's  hat, 
and  are  arranged  in  the  furnace  with  the  crown  downward ; 
they  are  about  three  feet  in  depth,  and  two  and  a  half  in  di- 
ameter, and  they  contain  sufficient  for  a  week's  charge. 
Each  pot  is  covered  with  a  leaden  cupola,  luted  on  with  clay, 
and  the  salt  is  at  first  allowed  to  sublime  away  through  a  hole 
in  the  center.  This  occasions  some  loss,  but  it  appears  to  be 
a  necessary  precaution  to  prevent  porosity  in  the  sublimate. 
The  central  hole  is  then  plugged  with  clay,  and  the  sublima- 
tion is  continued  for  a  week.  In  this  way  hemispherical  cakes 
of  sal-ammoniac  are  produced  ;  they  are  rasped  on  the  sur- 
face to  remove  crust  or  coloring  matter,  and  are  broken  into 
wedges,  which  are  packed  in  barrels  for  exportation. 

In  preparing  sulphate  of  ammonia  the  distilled  ammoniacal 
liquor  is  saturated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  concentrated  until 
small  crystals  are  formed,  which  are  removed  by  perforated 
ladles,  dried,  and  packed  in  barrels  lined  with  paper. 

The  tar,  which  contains  a  considerable  portion  of  water, 
is  transferred  to  a  still,  where  crude  naptha  and  vapor  of 
water  distil  over.  They  separate  in  consequence  of  their 
different  densities,  and  the  naptha  is  digested  with  sulphuric 
acid  in  a  leaden  trough.  This  separates  ammonia  and  other 
substances ;  the  acid  is  removed  by  means  of  quick-lime,  the 
naptha  is  washed  with  water,  distilled,  and  is  ready  for  the 
market.  The  remaining  tar  is  raised  to  a  higher  temperature, 
and  a  liquid  less  volatile  than  naptha  is  produced  ;  it  is  term- 
ed pitch-oil,  and  is  used  for  impregnating  wood,  etc.  The 
pitch  in  the  still  is  then  run  out,  when  it  settles  into  a  soft 
solid,  for  which  at  Edinburgh  no  market  has  yet  been  found, 
but  it  may  probably  be  turned  to  account  as  a  cheap  fuel. 

Scarcely  any  market  is  found  for  the  tar,  which  was  for- 
merly largely  consumed  at  Continental  seaports.  The  in- 
crease of  gas-works  on  the  Continent,  and  the  absence  of  duty 
on  foreign  tar  as  distinguished  from  British  tar,  has  greatly 
retarded  the  sale  of  the  latter  abroad. 


314  Five  Black  Arts. 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  Boghead  cannel  coal,  a  new 
secondary  product  has  been  obtained  in  the  form  of  paraffine. 
It  is  separated  at  the  Westminster  gas-works  as  paraffine-oil, 
and  is  used  for  lubricating  the  machinery. 


IRON. 


HISTORY   OF   ITS   MANUFACTURE, 


AN  ACCOUNT  OF  ITS  PROPERTIES  AND  USES. 


IRON 


Iron,  on  account  of  its  abundance,  working  qualities,  and 
tenacity,  is  probably  the  most  useful  and  valuable  of  metals. 
According  to  Dr.  Ure,  "  it  is  capable  of  being  cast  into 
moulds  of  any  form,  of  being  drawn  into  wire  of  any  desired 
length  or  fineness,  of  being  extended  into  plates  or  sheets,  of 
being  bent  in  every  direction,  of  being  sharpened,  or  hard- 
ened, or  softened  at  pleasure.  Iron  accommodates  itself  to 
all  our  wants  and  desires,  and  even  to  our  caprices ;  it  is 
equally  serviceable  to  the  arts,  the  sciences,  to  agriculture, 
and  war ;  the  same  ore  furnishes  the  sword,  the  plowshare, 
the  scythe,  the  pruning-hook,  the  needle,  the  graver,  the 
spring  of  a  watch  or  of  a  carriage,  the  chisel,  the  chain,  the 
anchor,  the  compass,  the  cannon,  and  the  bomb.  It  is  a 
medicine  of  much  virtue,  and  the  only  metal  friendly  to  the 
human  frame."  In  its  primitive  position  it  is  commingled 
with  the  earth's  strata  in  bountiful  profusion ;  it  is  found  in 
various  combinations  and  conditions  in  every  formation,  and 
it  is  a  constituent  element  of  both  animals  and  vegetables. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  IRON  MANUFACTURE. 

Malleable  iron  appears  to  have  been  known  from  a  remote 
antiquity.  Its  obvious  utility  and  great  superiority  over  the 
softer  metals,  then  commonly  used,  combined  with  the  expense 
of  its  reduction,  caused  it  to  be  highly  prized,  though  the  ex- 
treme difficulty  of  working  it  by  the  rude  methods  then  em- 
ployed greatly  restricted  its  application.*  There  are  notices 
in  Homer  and  Hesiod  of  the  arts  of  reducing  and  forging 
iron,  but  cast-iron  was  then  unknown,  an  imperfectly  mallea- 
ble iron  being  produced  at  once  from  the  ores  in  the  furnace. 

*  This  is  shown  by  the  epithet  much-wrought,  applied  to  it  by  Homer — 
Jliad,  vi.  48. 


318  Five  Black  Arts. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Greeks  obtained  most  of  their  iron 
through  the  Phoenicians  from  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea, 
and  from  Laconia. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  trace  the  gradual  advances 
which  have  been  made  in  the  reduction  of  iron  from  its  dis- 
covery to  the  present  time  ;  to  inquire  into  the  circumstances 
which  led  to  the  successive  changes  in  the  processes,  and  into 
the  principle  on  which  those  changes  were  founded  ;  to  ex- 
amine into  differences  in  the  products  which  from  time  to 
time  ensued,  and  to  notice  the  influence  of  these  conditions 
on  the  extent  and  progress  of  the  manufacture.  Our  knowl- 
edge of  these  changes,  however,  is  scanty  and  imperfect,  and 
we  can  only  conjecture  what  was  probably  its  early  progress. 

The  furnaces  which  were  first  employed  for  smelting  iron 
were  probably  similar  to  those  now  called  air-bloomeries. 
They  were  probably  simple  conical  structures,  with  small 
openings  below  for  the  admission  of  air,  and  a  large  one  above 
for  the  escape  of  the  products  of  combustion,  and  would  be 
erected  on  high  grounds  in  order  that  the  wind  might  assist 
combustion.  The  fire  being  kindled,  successive  layers  of  ore 
and  charcoal  would  be  placed  in  it,  and  the  heat  regulated 
by  opening  or  closing  the  apertures  below. 

The  process  of  reduction  would  consist  of  the  de-oxidation 
of  the  ore  and  the  cementation  of  the  metal  by  long-continued 
heat.  The  temperature  would  never  rise  sufficiently  high  to 
fuse  the  ore,  and  the  product  would  therefore  be  an  imper- 
fectly malleable  iron,  mixed  with  scoriae  and  unreduced  oxide. 
It  would  then  be  brought  under  the  hammer,  and  fashioned 
into  a  rude  bloom,  during  which  process  it  would  be  freed 
from  the  greater  portion  of  the  earthy  impurities. 

By  such  a  process  as  this  the  Romans  probably  worked  the 
iron  ores  of  our  own  island ;  scoriae,  the  refuse  of  ancient 
bloomeries,  occur  in  various  localities,  in  some  cases  identified 
with  that  people  by  the  coincident  remains  of  altars  dedica- 
ted to  the  god  who  presided  over  iron.  Mungo  Park  saw  a 
rude  furnace  of  this  kind  used  by  the  Africans,  and,  indeed, 
with  some  modifications,  it  is  still  retained  in  Spain,  and  along 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  rich  specular  ores  are 
worked. 

The  advantages  of  an  artificial  blast  would  soon  become 
manifest,  and  a  pair  of  bellows  or  a  cylinder  and  piston  would 


Iron — Manufacture.  319 

soon  be  applied  to  the  simple  construction  mentioned  above. 
Homer  represents  Hephaestus  as  throwing  the  materials  from 
which  the  shield  of  Achilles  was  to  be  forged  into  a  furnace 
urged  by  20  pairs  of  bellows  (9ufl'ai).  The  inhabitants  of 
Madagascar  smelt  iron  in  much  the  same  way,  their  blowing 
apparatus,  however,  consisting  of  hollow  trunks  of  trees, 
with  loosely  fitting  pistons. 

The  furnace  corresponds  to  the  JZas^bloomery,  and  has  by 
successive  improvements  developed  into  the  blast  furnace, 
now  almost  universally  used,  and  into  the  Catalan  forge,  still 
employed  in  some  districts.  The  application  of  the  blast 
would  offer  considerable  advantages ;  it  would  obviate  the 
necessity  of  an  elevated  site,  place  the  temperature  more 
immediately  under  the  direction  of  the  smelter,  and  render 
the  whole  process  more  regular  and  certain.  The  method  of 
reduction  remained  the  same  as  before,  but  the  product  would 
differ  considerably,  for  whenever  the  blast  was  sufficiently 
powerful,  the  iron  would  be  fused,  a  partial  carburation 
would  take  place,  and  the  resulting  metal  would  be  a  species 
of  steel,  utterly  useless  to  the  workmen  of  those  days ;  hence, 
it  seems  necessary  to  infer,  that  a  rude  process  of  refining 
was  invented,  the  metal  being  again  heated  with  charcoal,  and 
the  blast  directed  over  its  surface,  the  carbon  would  be  burnt 
out,  and  the  iron  become  tough  and  malleable.  The  processes 
might  perhaps  form  two  successive  stages  of  one  operation,  as 
at  present  practiced  with  the  Catalan  forge. 

The  increasing  demand  for  iron,  and  the  progress  of  inter- 
nal communication,  would  lead  the  smelter  to  increase  the 
size  and  height  of  his  bloomery,  and  this  probably  would 
lead  to  a  very  unexpected  result.  The  greater  length  through 
which  the  ore  had  to  descend  would  prolong  its  contact  with 
the  charcoal,  and  a  higher  state  of  carburation  would  ensue, 
the  product  being  cast-iron — a  compound  till  then  perhaps 
unknown. 

From  the  time  that  cast-iron  became  the  product  of  the 
smelting  furnace,  the  refining  would  be  made  a  separate  pro- 
cess, requiring  a  separate  furnace  and  machinery.  It  would 
soon  be  found  also  that,  as  the  furnace  increased  in  height,  the 
pressure  of  the  superincumbent  mass  would  render  the  mate- 
rials so  dense  as  to  retard  the  ascent  of  the  blast,  and  thus 
cause  it  to  become  soft  and  inefficient ;  hence  the  internal 


320  Five  Black  Arts. 

buttresses  called  hoshes  were  first  introduced  to  support  the 
weight  of  the  charge,  relieving  the  central  parts  from  the 
pressure,  and  permitting  the  free  ascent  of  the  blast.  Whilst 
the  good  quality  of  the  iron  and  the  regularity  of  the  process 
were  thus  insured,  increase  of  quantity  was  the  result  of  im- 
provements in  the  blowing  apparatus,  which  was  now  enlarged 
and  worked  by  water-power.  With  these  modifications,  the 
furnace  was  the  same  essentially  as  the  blast-furnace  now 
employed,  though  not  so  large  ;  indeed,  until  the  introduction 
of  coke  at  a  much  later  period,  the  blast-furnace  seldom  ex- 
ceeded 15  feet  in  height  by  6  at  the  widest  diameter.  The 
more  perfect  operation  of  the  blast-furnace  allowed  the  re- 
duction of  the  heaps  of  scoriae  which  had  been  gradually 
accumulating  during  the  period  that  the  blast  bloomeries  had 
been  in  operation,  and  which  contained  30  to  40  per  cent,  of 
iron.  A  new  species  of  property  was  thus  created,  extensive 
proprietorships  of  Danish  and  Roman  cinders  were  formed ; 
large  deposits  of  scoriae  which  for  ages  had  lain  concealed 
beneath  forests  of  decayed  oak,  were  dug  up,  and  in  Dean 
Forest  it  is  computed  that  20  furnaces,  for  a  period  of  up- 
ward of  300  years,  were  supplied  chiefly  with  the  bloomery 
cinders  as  a  substitute  for  iron  ore. 

At  what  period  the  complete  transformation  of  the  blast- 
bloomery  into  the  blast  furnace  was  effected,  it  is  impossible 
to  say.  It  was  probably  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century, 
as  we  find  that  in  the  17th  the  art  of  casting  had  arrived  at 
a  considerable  degree  of  perfection,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  there  was  a  considerable  export  trade  of  cast-iron 
ordnance  to  the  Continent.  In  the  forest  of  Dean  are  the 
remains  of  two  blast  furnaces,  which  formerly  belonged  to 
the  kings  of  England,  but  they  have  been  out  of  blast  since 
the  commencement  of  the  struggle  between  Charles  I.  and 
bis  Parliament.  Calculating  from  the  quantity  of  scoriae 
accumulated  in  their  immediate  neighborhood,  which  appear  to 
have  lain  undisturbed  for  the  last  two  centuries,  Mr.  Mushet 
has  attempted  to  deduce  the  period  of  their  erection,  which 
he  conceives  to  have  been  about  the  year  1550,  in  the  time 
of  Edward  VI. 

Up  to  this  period  wood  charcoal  was  the  only  material 
employed  in  smelting  operations,  but  the  wants  of  a  constantly 
increasing  population,  not  less  than  the  great  consumption  of 


Iron — History.  321 

the  blast  furnaces  themselves,  created  a  scarcity  of  this  essen- 
tial material,  and  gave  a  check  to  the  manufacture.  To  such 
an  extent  had  the  wood  been  destroyed,  that  the  cutting  down 
of  timber  for  the  use  of  the  iron-works  was  prohibited  by 
special  enactments  ;  and  the  forests  of  Sussex  alone  appear 
to  have  been  exempt  from  the  general  decree  of  conservation. 
The  number  of  furnaces  in  blast  decreased  three-fourths,  and 
the  annual  production,  which  but  a  short  time  before  is  said 
to  have  been  180,000  tons,  was  in  1740  reduced  to  only 
17,350  tons. 

James  I.  granted  patents  to  ironmasters  in  various  parts  of 
the  kingdom  for  using  pit-coal  in  the  manufacture  of  iron. 
The  obstacles  to  its  introduction,  however,  were  numerougi, 
and  not  easily  overcome.  The  comparatively  incombustible 
nature  of  coke,  and  its  feebler  chemical  affinities,  rendered  a 
more  powerful  blast  and  a  longer  subjection  to  the  heat  indis- 
pensable to  its  successful  adoption.  Ignorance  of  the  causes 
of  failure  operated  long  and  seriously,  but  all  difficulties  were 
at  length  surmounted.  An  enlargement  of  the  height  of  the 
furnace  prolonged  the  contact  of  the  ore  and  coke,  and  at  last 
the  employment  of  the  steam-engine  and  improved  blowing 
apparatus  rendered  the  blast  much  more  powerful  and  regular, 
and  gave  that  impetus  to  the  manufacture  which  has  caused 
Great  Britain  to  take  the  first  rank  in  this  branch  of  in- 
dustry. 

The  first  great  improvement  on  the  blowing  apparatus  was 
the  substitution  of  large  cylinders,  with  closely  fitting  pistons, 
for  the  bellows.  The  earliest  of  any  magnitude  were  prob- 
ably those  erected  by  Smeaton  at  the  Carron  Iron-Works,  in 
1760. 

In  1783-4,  Mr.  Cort  of  Gosport  introduced  the  processes 
of  puddling  and  rolling,  two  of  the  most  important  inventions 
connected  with  the  production  of  iron  since  the  employment 
of  the  blast  furnace. 

About  this  time  the  steam-engine  of  James  Watt  came 
into  use,  and  along  with  it  commenced  a  new  era  in  the 
history  of  the  iron  trade  and  every  other  branch  of  industry. 
Its  immense  power,  economy,  and  convenience  of  application, 
brought  it  at  once  into  general  employment.  It  was  soon 
applied  to  pumping,  blowing,  and  rolling ;  it  enabled  the  mines 
to  be  sunk  to  a  greater  depth  ;  refractory  ores  to  be  reduced 
21 


322  Five  Black  Arts. 

with  facility,  and  the  processes  of  rolling,  forging,  etc.,  to  be 
effected  with  a  rapidity  previously  unknown. 

Of  late  years,  Scotland  has  made  considerable  progress  in 
the  iron  manufacture.  The  introduction  of  railway  commu- 
nication, and  the  invention  of  the  hot-blast,  have  given  a 
stimulus  to  the  trade  which  has  raised  Glasgow  into  impor- 
tance as  an  iron  district,  and  few  towns  possess  greater  fa- 
cilities for  the  sale  of  their  produce,  than  this  central  depot 
of  the  mineral  treasures  of  the  country  by  which  it  is  sur- 
rounded. 

The  hot-blast  process,  for  which  a  patent  was  taken  out  by 
Mr.  Neilson  in  1824,  has  effected  an  entire  revolution  in  the 
iron  industry  of  Great  Britain,  and  forms  the  last  era  in  the 
history  of  this  material.  This  simple  but  effective  invention 
has  given  such  facilities  for  the  reduction  of  refractory  ores, 
that  between  three  and  four  times  the  quantity  of  iron  can 
be  produced  weekly,  with  an  expenditure  of  little  more  than 
one- third  the  fuel ;  and,  moreover,  the  coal  does  not  require 
to  be  coked,  or  the  ores  to  be  calcined. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  add  that  there  appear  to  have  been 
five  distinct  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  iron  trade. 

The  first  dating  from  the  employment  of  an  artificial  blast 
to  accelerate  combustion. 

The  second  marked  by  the  employment  of  coke  for  reduc- 
tion, about  the  year  1760. 

The  third  dating  from  the  introduction  of  the  steam-engine, 
and  on  account  of  the  facilities  with  which  that  invention  has 
given  for  raising  the  ores,  pumping  the  mines,  supplying  the 
furnace  with  a  copious  and  regular  blast,  and  moving  the 
powerful  forge  and  rolling  machinery,  we  may  safely  attrib- 
ute this  era  to  the  genius  of  James  Watt. 

The  fourth  epoch  is  indicated  by  the  introduction  of  the 
system  of  puddling  and  rolling,  very  soon  after  the  employ- 
ment of  the  steam-engine. 

The  fifth,  and  last — though  not  the  least  important  epoch 
in  the  history  of  this  manufacture — is  marked  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  hot-blast — an  invention  which  has  increased  the 
production  of  iron  fourfold,  and  has  enabled  the  ironmaster 
to  smelt  otherwise  useless  and  unreducible  ores ;  it  has  abol- 
ished the  processes  of  coking  and  roasting,  and  has  given 
facilities  for  a  large  and  rapid  production,  far  beyond  the 


Iron— Ores.  323 

most  sanguine  anticipations  of  its  inventor.  Manufacturers 
taking  advantage  of  so  powerful  an  agent,  have  not  hesitated 
to  reduce  improper  materials,  such  as  cinder-heaps  and  im- 
pure ores,  and  by  unduly  hastening  the  process,  and  attend- 
ing to  quantity  more  than  to  quality,  have  produced  an  infe- 
rior description  of  iron,  that  has  brought  the  invention  into 
unmerited  obloquy. 

THE  ORES. 

The  ores  of  iron  are  found  in  profuse  abundance  in  every 
latitude,  imbedded  in  or  stratified  with  every  formation.  They 
occur  both  crystallized,  massive,  and  arenaceous  ;  lying  deep 
on  strata  of  vast  extent,  filling  veins  and  faults  in  other  rocks, 
and  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Sometimes, 
but  rarely,  found  native  ;  usually  as  oxides,  sulphurets,  or 
carbonates,  more  or  less  mingled  with  other  substances  Of 
these  ores  there  are  perhaps  twenty  varieties,  many  of  which 
are,  however,  rare ;  others  are  combined  with  substances  which 
unfit  them  for  the  manufacture  of  iron,  so  that  the  remainder 
may  be  classed  under  the  following  general  heads ;  their 
composition,  however,  varies  greatly  : 

1.  The  magnetic  oxides,  in  which  the  iron  occurs,  as 
Fcg  O4  or  Fca  Og-fFe  0.  This  is  the  purest  ore  which  is 
worked ;  the  best  Swedish  metal  is  manufactured  from  it.  It 
is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  and  is  widely  difiused  over  the 
globe. 

2.  Specular  iron  ore,  peroxide  of  iron,  Ye 2  O3.  This  is 
rich  and  valuable  ore,  and  has  been  worked  from  a  remote 
antiquity  in  Elba  and  Spain.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  primary 
and  transition  rocks. 

3.  Red  and  brown  haematites,  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron. 
These  ores  occur  in  botyroidal  radiating  masses,  in  Cumber- 
land, Ireland,  America,  and  other  places. 

4.  Carbonate  of  iron.  This  ore  occurs  mixed  with  large 
quantities  of  argillaceous,  carbonaceous,  and  silicious  sub- 
stances, forming  the  large  deposits  of  clay-ironstone  and 
blackbands,  from  which  most  of  the  iron  of  this  country  is 
obtained.  These  strata  are  generally  found  in  close  proxim- 
ity to  the  coal  measures. 

All  the  above  ores  are  more  or  less  mixed  with  silica,  alu- 


324 


Five  Black  Arts. 


mina,  oxide  of  manganese,  etc.,  and  it  may  not  be  uninter- 
esting to  glance  at  their  geographical  distribution  in  Europe 
and  America. 

This  country  possesses  peculiar  and  remarkable  advanta- 
ges for  the  manufacture  of  iron.  The  ores  are  found  in  ex- 
haustless  abundance,  usually  interstratified  with  the  coal  for 
their  reduction,  and  in  close  proximity  to  the  mountain  lime- 
stone, which  is  used  as  a  flux.  In  few  countries  do  these 
three  essential  materials  occur  in  such  abundance,  or  so  near 
together  as  to  give  the  necessary  facilities  for  a  large  and 
profitable  production. 

The  ores  principally  employed  are  the  clay-ironstones  and 
carbonates  of  blackbands,  which  are  found  interstratified  with 
the  coal  fields  of  Ayrshire,  Lanarkshire,  Shropshire,  South 
Wales,  and  other  parts,  and  these  vary  in  richness  in  different 
localities,  according  to  position  and  the  amount  of  silica  clay 
and  other  foreign  matter  with  which  they  are  associated.  The 
chemical  composition  of  three  varieties  of  the  ore  used  in 
Lanarkshire  is  given  by  Dr.  Colquhoun,  as  follows : 


Protoxide  of  iron  .. 

Carbonic  acid 

Silica 

Alumina 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Peroxide  of  iron  . . . 
Bituminous  matter  . 

Sulphur 

Oxide  of  Manganese 
Moisture  and  loss  . . 


No.  1. 


5303 
35-17 
1-40 
0-63 
3-33 
1-77 
0-23 
303 
0-00 
000 
1-41 


No.  2. 


47-33 
33-10 
.6-63 
4-30 
2-00 
2-20 
0-33 
1-70 
0-22 
0-13 
2-26 


No.  3. 


35-22 
32-53 
9-56 
5-34 
8-62 
6-19 
1-16 
213 
0-62 
0-00 
000 


100-00       10000       100-37 


The  carbonic  acid  in  the  above  ores  may  be  partly  com- 
bined with  the  lime  as  carbonate  of  lime,  as  well  as  with  the 
protoxide  of  iron. 

M.  Berthier  gives,  according  to  Dr.  Ure,  the  following 
analyses  of  the  English  and  Welsh  ironstones  of  the  coal 
measures : 


Iron — Ores, 


325 


Rich  Welsh 
Ore. 

PoOr  Welsh 
Ore. 

DadleyRich 

Ore  or 
Gubbin. 

Loss  by  ignition 

3000 
8-40 

60-00 
0-00 

27-0> 
22-03 

42  GG 
6  00 

3100 

Insoluble  residuum 

7-66 

Peroxide  of  iron 

58-33 

Lime ...     .              

2-66 

98-40 

97-69 

99-65 

Calculating  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  iron  and  metallic 
iron  indicated  bj  the  above  analyses,  we  have : 


Carbonate  of  iron 

88-77 
42-15 

65-09 
31-38 

85-20 

Metallic  iron 

40-45 

The  richness  of  the  above  ironstones  would  be  about  33 
per  cent,  of  iron.  In  the  process  of  roasting,  28  per  cent, 
of  the  ore  is  dissipated. 

Mr.  Mitchell  gives  also  the  following  assays  of  clay-iron- 
stone and  blackband  ore,  as  under : 


Clay  iron- 
stone, Lei- 
trim, Ireland. 

Blackband 

Carbonate 

Ore. 

Protoxide  of  iron 

51-653 

3-742 

•976 

1-849 

•284 

•410 

•274 

•372 

•214 

•284 

31-142 

6-640 

I    2-160 

20-924 

Peroxide  of  iron    

•741 

Oxide  of  Man&ranese         

1-742 

Alumina  

14-974 

Mao^nesia               . 

-987 

•881 

Potash              

trace. 

Soda 

trace. 

•098 

Phosphoric  acid             

•lU 

14-000 

Silica                   

26-179 

Carbonaceous  matter 

16-940 

2-420 

100-000 

100-000 

In  North  Lancashire  and  Cumberland,  the  red  haematite  ores 


326  Five  Black  Arts. 

are  now  extensively  worked,  and  great  quantities  are  yearly 
shipped  from  Whitehaven,  IJlverstone,  etc.,  to  Staffordshire, 
South  Wales,  and  Scotland,  for  mixing  with  the  poorer  ar- 
gillaceous and  blackband  ores.  In  Cumberland  and  North 
Lancashire,  no  less  than  546,998  tons  were  raised  in  1854 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  greater  portion  was  exported  from 
those  districts. 

In  addition  to  these  exports,  about  25  to  30,000  tons  are 
smelted  by  the  hot  blast  at  Cleator,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Whitehaven.  It  produces  a  strong  and  ductile  iron,  con- 
sidered highly  valuable  for  mixing  with  the  weaker  irons. 
These  ores  have  been  carefully  analyzed,  and  contain  : 

Peroxide  of  iron 90-3 

Silica 5-0 

Alumina 30 

Lime trace. 

Magnesia trace. 

Water 60 

104-3 


Or  about  62  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron. 

In  Ireland  there  are  vast  deposits  of  iron  ore  of  great 
richness,  though  as  yet  but  little  worked.  Some  of  these, 
such  as  the  ores  worked  at  the  Arigua  mines,  and  the  Kidney 
ores  of  Balcarry  Bay,  yield  as  much  as  70  per  cent,  of  iron. 
If  these  mines  were  worked  more  extensively,  and  if  peat 
fuel  were  used  in  the  smelting  operations,  the  iron  would 
probably  be  of  the  very  best  quality,  and  might  rival  the 
famed  Swedish  charcoal  metal.  Of  this  there  is  now  every 
reason  to  hope,  as  the  establishment  of  railway  communica- 
tion, with  almost  every  part  of  Ireland,  will  open  out  the 
immense  peat  bogs  of  that  country,  and  facilitate  the  intro- 
duction of  vegetable  fuel  for  the  reduction  of  the  ores,  and 
create  a  large  and  important  addition  to  other  branches  of 
Irish  industry.  In  a  communication  to  the  writer  from  Mr. 
M'All,  dated  Scrabby,  he  states — "  I  have  sent  you  samples 
of  two  kinds  of  iron  ore,  one  is  the  red,  the  other  the  purple 
haematite.  There  are  strata  which  are  inexhaustible,  and  the 
ore  can  be  raised  and  delivered  at  the  furnace  for  less  than 
a  shilling  a  ton ;  the  peat  or  vegetable  carbon  is  equally  cheap 
and  abundant.     Limestone  of  the  purest  quality  is  also  close 


Iron— Ores.  327 

at  hand,  and  can  be  delivered  at  the  furnace  at  ninepence 
per  ton.  On  account  of  the  purity  of  these  materials,  iron 
of  the  greatest  strength  and  ductility  can  be  made,  which, 
from  its  non-liability  to  corrode,  would  be  admirably  adapted 
for  naval  and  marine  purposes."  Ireland  is,  therefore,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  M'All  and  others,  in  a  condition  to  supply 
large  quantities  of  excellent  iron. 

France  possesses  an  abundant  supply  of  iron  ore,  but  on 
account  of  the  scarcity  of  coal,  the  manufacture  has  been 
greatly  restricted  in  extent.  The  introduction  of  railway 
communication  is,  however,  rapidly  removing  the  difficulty, 
and  the  operations  of  smelting  are  greatly  on  the  increase. 
The  railroad  has  enabled  the  French  ironmaster  to  substitute 
coal  for  charcoal  in  the  reduction  of  the  iron  ores,  and  in 
consequence  an  immense  increase  has  taken  place  in  the  pro- 
duction of  pig  and  manufactured  iron.  The  ores  are  found 
in  beds  or  strata  in  the  Jura  range  ;  accumulated  in  kidney- 
shaped  concretions  in  the  fissures  of  the  limestone ;  or  dis- 
persed over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  but  slightly  cover- 
ed with  sand  or  clay. 

They  are  found  in  the  departments  of  the  Yonne,  the 
Meuse,  and  the  Moselle,  and  indeed  may  be  traced  from  the 
Pas  de  Calais  on  the  north  to  the  Jura  on  the  south,  in- 
dicating throughout  an  abundant  and  ample  supply. 

The  present  increased  production  of  iron  in  France  is 
chiefly  due  to  the  introduction  of  coal  in  smelting,  but  it  may 
also  be  traced  in  some  measure  to  the  encouragement  given 
by  the  Government  to  that  branch  of  industry,  and  to  the 
enterprise  of  such  men  as  M.  de  Gallois  and  M.  Dufrenoy, 
who  have  exerted  themselves  to  extend  its  manufacture  in  that 
country.  M.  de  Gallois  resided  in  England  for  several  years, 
immediately  subsequent  to  the  peace  of  1815,  and  having  ob- 
tained admission  into  the  different  iron-works  here,  he  returned 
to  France  and  established  the  works  at  St.  Etienne,  now 
probably  the  largest  and  most  extensive  in  that  country.* 

*  The  universal  exhibition  of  last  year  (1855)  fully  justifies  the  remarks 
in  reference  to  the  great  increase  of  the  iron  trade  of  France.  Any  person 
in  the  least  conversant  with  the  imperfect  machinery  and  processes  of  the 
iron  manufacture  as  it  existed  in  France  some  years  since,  could  not  have 
been  otherwise  than  struck  with  the  improved  character  of  those  exemplified 
in  the  Paris  Exhibition.  In  no  country  (probably  not  excepting  even  this) 
has  so  great  progress  been  made  in  so  short  a  time,  in  advancing  from  a 
^ate  of  comparative  rudeness  to  one  of  considerable  perfection,  as  in  France. 


328  Five  Black  Arts. 

The  production  of  crude  pig-iron  in  France  is  now  little  short 
of  1,000,000  tons  annually,  but  the  demand  for  railways, 
rolling-stock,  bridges,  iron  ships,  girders,  and  other  construc- 
tions is  so  great  that  large  quantities  of  iron  are  still  annu- 
ally imported  into  this  country. 

Valuable  deposits  of  the  blackband  and  clay  carbonate 
ores  are  found  interstratified  with  the  great  coal-field  of 
Ruhr ;  and  the  bog-iron  and  haematite  ores  are  found  in  con- 
siderable profusion  in  Rhenish  Prussia  and  other  parts.  In 
Upper  Silesia,  on  the  Vistula  and  the  Oder,  large  deposits  of 
coal  and  iron  are  found  in  juxtaposition,  and  are  worked  to 
a  considerable  extent. 

The  consumption  of  iron  is  not  so  great  as  in  France, 
though  it  is  increasing  rapidly,  as  may  be  seen  from  returns 
recently  given  by  the  British  Charge  d^Aflfaires  at  Berlin. 
These  returns  show  that  the  amount  of  iron  ore  raised  in  Prus- 
sia has  increased  from  1,495,516  tons  in  1853,  to  2,144,509 
tons  in  1854  ;  this  has  taken  place  in  nearly  all  the  producing 
districts,  but  chiefly  on  the  Rhine,  where  the  demand  has  in- 
creased from  719,684  to  1,068,656  tons ;  in  Westphalia,  from 
146,320  to  330,014  tons ;  in  Silesia,  from  563,739  to  650,369 
tons;  in  Lower  Saxony  and  Thuringia,  from  51,963  to  70,- 
676  tons ;  in  Prussian  Brandenburgh,  from  8084  to  12,731 
tons ;  and  in  the  Upper  ZoUverein,  from  6736  to  13,063  tons. 

In  Austria,  all  the  iron  is  smelted  with  charcoal  or  car- 
bonized peat,  and  is  in  consequence  of  the  finest  quality ;  it 
may  be  applied  to  every  description  of  manufacture,  from  the 
most  ductile  wire  to  the  hardest  steel.  The  production  is, 
however,  small.  The  ores  are  found  in  Hungary,  Styria, 
Moravia,  and  Upper  Silesia. 

In  Belgium,  both  coal  and  iron  are  found  in  equal  abun- 
dance, and  are  worked  at  Charleroi,  Liege,  and  at  other  places. 
The  ores  which  are  chiefly  haematite,  are  derived  from  the 
limestone  at  the  base  of  the  coal  measures. 

The  superiority  of  the  Swedish  iron  has  long  been  ac- 
knowledged, and  till  recently  it  has  been  unrivaled.  This 
arises  not  only  from  the  purity  of  the  ore  —  the  magnetic 
oxide  of  iron  —  but  in  consequence  of  its  being  smelted  with 
charcoal  only.  The  quantity  is  however  restricted,  as  the 
ironmasters  are  allowed  by  law  only  a  certain  number  of  trees 
per  annum,  in  order   that  the  forests  may  not   be  totally 


Iron — Ores.  329 

destroyed.     Coal  does  not  exist  in  either  Sweden  or  Nor- 
way. 

In  1844  some  experimental  researches  were  undertaken 
by  Mr.  Fairbairn  of  Manchester,  at  the  request  of  the  Sub- 
lime Porte,  in  regard  to  the  properties  of  iron  made  from 
the  ores  of  Samakoff  in  Turkey.  The  ores  were  strongly 
magnetic,  and  contained,  according  to  Dumas  and  others,  62 
to  64  per  cent,  of  iron.     They  consist  of: 

One  atom  iron  28  -}-  one  atom  oxygen    .   8  =  36 
Two  atoms  iron  56  -j-  three  atoms  oxygen  24  =  80 

Iron 84  Oxygen 32     116 

Some  of  these  ores  have  been  smelted  with  charcoal,  and 
some  very  fine  specimens  of  iron  and  steel  produced.  The 
manufacture  is,  however,  in  a  languid  state  in  Turkey,  and 
although  smelting  furnaces,  blowing  apparatus,  forges,  rolling 
mills,  etc.,  were  prepared  and  sent  out  from  this  country,  they 
are  to  a  great  extent  useless  among  a  people  who  have  deeply 
rooted  prejudices  and  habitual  inactivity  to  overcome,  and 
every  thing  to  learn  in  all  those  habits  of  industry  which  indi- 
cate the  rising  prosperity  of  an  energetic  and  an  active  people. 

Both  the  magnetic,  haematite,  and  clay-ironstones  abound 
in  the  United  States.  The  magnetic  ores  worked  in  New 
England,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey ;  the  haematite  in 
Pennsylvania,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  other  localities ; 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  manufacture  must  eventually  es- 
tablish itself  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  west  of  the 
Alleghany  range,  where  vast  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  exist, 
though  at  present  but  imperectly  known  or  developed.*  The 
ores  in  most  of  these  districts  are  smelted  with  a  mixture  of 
charcoal  and  anthracite,  and  the  usual  limestone  flux,  and  pro- 
duce a  very  excellent  quality  of  iron. 

In  Nova  Scotia  some  of  the  richest  ores  yet  discovered  occur 
in  exhaustless  abundance.  The  iron  manufactured  from  them 
is  of  the  very  best  quality,  and  is  equal  to  the  finest  Swedish 
metal.  The  specular  ore  of  the  Acadian  mines,  Nova  Scotia, 
is  said  by  Dr.  Ure  to  be  a  nearly  pure  peroxide  of  iron,  con- 
taining 99  per  cent,  of  the  peroxide,  and  about  70  per  cent, 
of  iron.  When  smelted,  100  parts  yield  75  of  iron,  the  in- 
crease in  weight  being  due  to  combined  carbon.     The  red 

*  Especially  in  Ohio  and  in  Missouri. 


330  Five  Black  Arts. 

ore  Dr.  lire  states  to  be  analogous  to  the  kidney  ore  of  Cum- 
berland, and  to  contain : 

(1)  (2) 

Peroxide  of  iron 85-8  84.4 

Silica 8.2  8-0 

Water 6-0  7-6 

100-0      100.0 

The  Acadian  ores  are  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  large 
tracts  of  forests,  capable  of  supplying  almost  any  quantity  of 
charcoal  for  the  manufacture  of  the  superior  qualities  of  iron 
and  steel.  Several  specimens  of  iron  from  these  mines  have 
been  submitted  to  direct  experiment,  and  the  results  prove  its 
high  powers  to  resist  strain,  ductility,  and  adaptation  to  all 
those  processes  by  which  the  finest  description  of  wire  and 
steel  are  manufactured. 

The  difficulties  which  the  Government  have  had  to  encoun- 
ter, during  the  last  two  years,  in  obtaining  a  sufficiently 
strong  metal  for  artillery,  are  likely  to  be  removed  by  the  use 
of  the  Acadian  pig-iron.  Large  quantities  have  been  pur- 
chased by  the  War  Office,  and  experiments  are  now  in  prog- 
ress, under  the  direction  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  Wilmot,  In- 
spector of  Artillery,  and  of  Mr.  Fairbairn,  which  seem  cal- 
culated to  establish  the  superiority  of  this  metal  for  casting 
every  description  of  heavy  ordnance. 

There  are  also  some  very  rich  ores  at  the  Nictau  mines, 
as  the  following  analyses  by  Dr.  Jackson  show.  They  con- 
tain impressions  of  Silurian  tentaculities,  spirifers,  etc. : 


Iron — Fuel. 


331 


Brown  Ore  somewhat 
magnetic. 

Red  Iron  Ore. 

Peroxide  of  iroa 

70-20 

14-40 

5-60 

2-80 

6-80 

•40 

•00 

64-40 

Silica           

19.20 

Carbonate  of  Lime 

5-40 

Carbonate  of  Magnesia 

320 

Alumina    

1-20 

Oxide  of  Manganese 

4-40 

Water 

2-40 

*  Gain  from  oxygen. 

t  Over-run,  probably  carbonic  acid  from 

100-20 
•20* 

100-20 
•20t 

carbonate  of  lime. 

10000 

10000 

As  our  limits  are  circumscribed,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
extend  this  section  further ;  suffice  it  therefore  to  observe,  that 
in  all  countries  nature  has,  with  a  beneficent  purpose,  interlaid 
and  interstratified  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe  with  this 
useful  and  indispensable  material,  and  it  would  ill  bespeak  that 
high  intelligence  with  which  man  is  endowed  if  he  did  not 
avail  himself  of,  and  turn  to  good  account,  the  immense  stores 
of  mineral  treasures  which  are  so  profusely  laid  at  his  feet. 


THE  FUEL. 

The  inquiry  into  the  properties  and  composition  of  the 
ores  of  iron,  and  the  processes  employed  for  their  reduc- 
tion and  subsequent  conversion  into  bars  and  plates,  would  be 
incomplete  unless  accompanied  by  a  descriptive  analyses  of 
the  fuel  by  which  they  are  fused.  Indeed  the  results  of  the 
operations  of  smelting,  puddling,  etc.,  are  so  intimately  de- 
pendent on  the  quality  of  the  fuel  employed,  as  to  render  a 
knowledge  of  its  constituents  essential  to  the  manufacture  of 
good  iron. 

Charcoal  was  at  first  universally  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron,  and  on  account  of  its  purity  compared  with 
other  kinds  of  fuel,  and  its  strong  chemical  affinities  and  con- 
sequent high  combustibility,  it  is  of  very  superior  value  where 


332 


Five  Black  Arts. 


it  can  be  obtained  in  large  quantities  at  a  moderate  cost. 
This,  however,  is  rarely  the  case,  and  hence  its  use  is  restric- 
ted within  very  narrow  limits  in  most  countries.  Charcoal  is 
the  result  of  several  processes,  in  each  of  which  the  object 
is  to  increase  the  amount  of  fuel  in  a  given  bulk.  The  wood 
being  cut  into  convenient  lengths,  and  piled  closely  together, 
in  a  large  heap,  the  interstices  being  filled  with  the  smaller 
branches,  and  the  whole  being  covered  with  wet  charcoal  pow- 
der, is  then  set  on  fire.  Care  is  taken  that  only  sufficient  air 
is  admitted  to  consume  the  gaseous  products  of  the  wood,  so  as 
to  maintain  the  high  temperature  without  needlessly  consum- 
ing the  carbon.  After  the  whole  of  the  gaseous  products 
have  been  separated,  and  the  carbon  and  salts  only  are 
left,  the  access  of  air  is  prevented,  and  the  heap  allowed  to 
cool. 

Another  and  better  process  is  to  throw  the  wood  into  a 
large  close  oven  or  furnace,  heated  either  by  the  combustion 
within  it,  or  by  a  separate  fire  conducted  in  flues  around  it. 
By  this  process,  not  only  is  the  yield  greater  and  of  better 
quality,  from  the  slower  progress  of  the  operation,  but  the 
products  of  the  distillation  may  be  preserved  and  employed 
for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  The  following  results  of 
some  experiments  by  Karsten,  show  the  difference  in  yield  of 
very  rapid  and  very  slow  processes : 


Wood. 

Charcoal  produced  by  quick 
carboimation 

Charcoal  produced  by  Blow 
carbonization,  ji,^^. 

Young  Oak 

16-54 
15-91 
14-25 
14-05 
16-22 
15-35 

25-60 

0]d         "    

25-71 

Young  Deal 

25-25 

Old         "     

25-00 

Young  Fir 

27-72 

Old        "    

24-75 

Mean 

15-38 

25-67 

These,  on  the  average,  give  for  the  quick  process  15*3, 
and  for  the  slow  25*6,  being  in  the  ratio  of  1 :  1*67,  or  0.67 
in  favor  of  the  quick  process. 

Peat. — This  material  seems  likely  to  come  into  use  for 


Iron— Fuel.  8SB 

smelting  iron  in  countries  such  as  Ireland,  where  neither  coal 
nor  wood  are  found  in  abundance.  It  is  purer  and  less  ob- 
jectionable than  coal,  and  if  properly  dried,  compressed,  and 
carbonized,  would  prove  a  very  valuable  fuel  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  such  ores  as  we  have  already  described  in  the  section 
on  the  iron  ores  of  Ireland.  It  is  carbonized  in  the  same 
way  as  the  charring  of  wood. 

Coke. — Before  the  introduction  of  the  hot-blast,  this  mate- 
rial was  used  to  a  very  great  extent  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  ;  it  is  prepared  from  coal  in  the  same  way  that  charcoal 
is  prepared  from  wood,  the  operation  being  called  the  coking 
or  desulphurizing  process.  The  heaps  do  not  require  so  care- 
ful a  regulation  of  the  admission  of  air  as  those  of  charcoal, 
on  account  of  the  comparatively  incombustible  character  of 
the  coke.  Sometimes  the  heaps  are  made  large,  with  per- 
forated brick  chimneys,  to  increase  the  draught  through  the 
mounds ;  at  other  times  they  are  formed  into  smaller  heaps, 
and  the  conversion  takes  place  without  the  intervention  of 
flues.  The  more  usual  and  economical  plan  is,  however,  the 
employment  of  close  ovens,  by  which  process  a  great  saving 
is  effected,  the  yield  being  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  in  tKe  one 
case,  and  from  50  to  75  in  the  other,  according  to  the  nature 
and  quality  of  the  coal. 

Coal. — The  hot-blast  has  enabled  the  ironmasters  to  use 
raw  coal  in  the  blast  furnaces,  the  great  heat  of  the  ascending 
current  of  the  products  of  combustion  coking  it  as  it  falls 
in  the  furnace.  The  sulphur,  however,  and  other  deleterious 
ingredients,  do  not  appear  to  be  so  completely  got  rid  of  as 
when  the  coal  is  used  in  the  shape  of  coke  ;  and  it  appears 
probable  that  even  with  the  hot  blast,  the  separate  process  of 
coking  might  be  advantageously  used,  on  account  of  the 
greater  purity  of  the  iron  produced. 

The  following  tables,  selected  from  various  sources,  give 
the  composition  of  the  different  kinds  of  fuel,  all  of  which  are 
applicable  to  the  reduction  and  fusion  of  the  iron  ores  : 


334 


Five  Black  Arts. 


Fael. 

LocaUty. 

1 
1 

1 

111 

o     g 

a  B 

it 

Authority. 

Splint  Coal 

u 

((      '.!!!!!. 

c(                ^  , 

CannelCoal 

(( 

« 
Cherry  Coal 

Caking  Coal....... 

(( 

Newcastle,  Wylam 
Glasgow. 

Lancashire,  Wigan 

Edinburgh. 
Parrot  coal. 

Newcastle,  Jarrow. 

Glasgow. 

Newcastle,   Gares- 

field. 
Durham,       South 

Hetton. 

129 

1266 

1.302 

1.307 

1272 
1.228 
1.319 

1.318 

1263 
1.266 

1.286 

1.280 

1.274 
1.269 

75  00 

70  90 

74823 

82  924 

64.72 
72.22 
83.753 

67  597 

74.45 
84.846 

81.208 

87  952 

83274 
75  28 

6.26 
4  30 
6.180 

6.491 

21.56 
3.93 
5.660 

5.405 

12.40 
5.048 

5.452 

5.239 

5.171 
4.18 

18  75 
24.80 
5.085 

10.457 

13.72 
23  85 
8.039 

12  432 

13.15 
8.430 

11.923 

5.416 

3  036 
20  54 

13.912 
1.128 

2  545 

14.566 

1.676 
1.421 
1.393 

1.519 
4.670 

Thomson. 
Ure. 

1  Richardson. 

Thomson. 
Ure. 

I  Richardson. 
Thomson. 

-Richardson. 
Thomson. 

Anthracite 

Swansea, 

South  Wales, 
Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 
Worcester. 

1.348 
1.270 

1.462 

92.56 
90  58 
94  05 
90.15 
94.89 
28  35 

2  330 
2.600 

3  38 
2.430 
2.650 
0.920 

2.530 
4.  00 
2.570 
2  46 
2.560 
2.150 

1.720 

4.370 
68.65 

Regnault. 
Jacquelin. 
Overman. 
Regnault. 

I  Overman. 

Peat 

Vulcaire, 

Long, 

Camp  de  Feu, 

Cappage, 

Kilbeggan, 

KUbakan, 

•"• 

57.03 
58  09 
57  79 
51.05 
61.04 
51.13 

5  630 

0.930 

6.110 

6.85 

6.67 

633 

31760 

31370 

30.7.0 

39.555 

30  46 

34.48 

2.55 
1.83 
8.06 

\ 

u 

I  Regnault. 

(C 

(( 

It 

>  Dr.  Kane 

(( 

According  to  Knapp,  peat  contains  from  1  to  33  per  cent. 
its  weight  of  ash.  In  coal  we  have  the  following  from  Mr. 
Mushet's  analyses : 


Specific 
gravity 

Carbon. 

Ashes. 

Volatile 
matter. 

Welsh  furnace  coal 

1-377 
1-393 
1-409 
1-264 
1-278 

88-068 
89-709 
82-175 
52-882 
48-362 

3.432 
2.300 
6  725 

4-288 
4-638 

8-300 

«              a            « 

8000 

"     slaty        "     

9100 

Derbyshire  furnace  coal 

"        cannel      "    

42-830 
47-000 

Iron — Fuel. 


335 


And  again  the  analyses,  from  Overman,  of  the  ash  of  coal, 
may  be  quoted,  as  showing  the  constituents  contained  in  the 
ashes  derived  from  combustion  : 


Sulphate  of  lime          .              ..         

80-3 
3' 8 

14-2 
1-7 
0-0 

100-0 

3' 6 

Lime 

2-5 

Silex 

85-7 

Oxide  of  iron 

00 

Alumina 

8-2 

1000 

The  following  table  of  the  heating  power  of  various  kind  s 
of  fuel,  from  Knapp's  Chemical  Technology,  is  not  without 
interest ;  in  practice,  however,  only  a  portion  of  the  absolute 
heating  power  is  made  available  : 


Charcoal — 

Average 

Peat  from  Allen  in  Ireland- 
Upper 

Lower 

Pressed 

Peat  charcoal — 

Essone 

Framont  and  Champ  de  Feu 
Coke— 

St.  Etienne 

Besseges 

Rive  de  Gier 

Brown  coal — 

Mean  of  7  varieties 

Cannel  coal,  Wigan 

Cherry,  Derbyshire 

Cannel,  Glasgow 

"       Lancashire 

Durham 

Gas  coke,  Paris — 
Anthracite 

Pennsylvania 

Mean  of  5  varieties 


Authority. 


Berthier. 
Griffith. 

Berthier. 
Berthier. 
Berthier. 
Berthier. 

Berthier. 


Lbs.  of  water 

heated  from 

0^  to  100  « 

centig.  by  1  lb. 

of  fuel. 


68-0 

62-7 
56-Q 
280 

50-7 
58-9 

65-6 
64-3 
68-9 

50-3 
64-1 
61-6 
56-4 
53-2 
71-6 
50-3 

69-1 
67-4 


336  Five  Black  Arts. 

In  concluding  the  observations  on  fuel,  we  may  notice  that 
the  various  kinds  of  coal  are  classed  by  mineralogists  as  the 
bituminous,  and  stone  or  anthracite  coal.  The  first  class  is 
chiefly  employed  for  the  purpose  of  smelting,  though,  since 
the  introduction  of  the  hot-blast,  anthracite  is  coming  largely 
into  use  both  in  this  country  and  America.  Mr.  Crane  of 
South  Wales  was  the  first  who  attempted  the  reduction  of  iron 
ores  by  anthracite,  and  Mr.  Budd,  at  his  works  at  Ystalyfera, 
followed  successfully  in  the  same  path.  To  these  two  gentle- 
men the  public  are  indebted  for  having  surmounted  the  ob- 
stacles to  the  employment  of  this  fuel  for  smelting  iron. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  IRON. 

The  processes  for  the  manufacture  of  iron,  as  we  have 
already  pointed  out,  are  of  two  distinct  kinds,  those  of  cemen- 
tation and  those  of  smelting ;  the  product  of  the  former  is 
imperfectly  malleable  iron,  that  of  the  latter,  cast-iron,  or 
iron  combined  with  more  or  less  carbon. 

The  first  and  older  process  is  uncertain  in  its  results,  in- 
volves considerable  expense,  and  as  there  are  no  efficient 
means  of  getting  rid  of  the  earthy  impurities,  it  necessitates 
the  employment  of  rich  magnetic,  specular,  or  haematite  ores  ; 
on  account  of  these  defects,  it  is  now  seldom  employed.  The 
ores  to  be  reduced  by  this  process  were  heated  with  charcoal 
in  open  furnaces,  the  fire  being  urged  by  a  blast.  The  oxy- 
gen, water,  and  volatile  substances  were  driven  ofi",  and  the 
iron — carburized  and  partly  fused — sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the 
hearth.  The  blast  was  then  directed  downward,  so  as  to  play 
over  the  surface  of  the  iron,  and  oxidized  the  greater  part  of 
the  combined  carbon ;  during  this  operation  the  iron  became 
tough  and  malleable,  and  fit  for  the  hammer. 

The  process  of  smelting  in  the  blast  furnace  is  now  almost 
universally  adopted  for  the  reduction  of  iron  ores,  and  for  the 
cheapness  and  working  qualities  of  the  metal  produced,  as 
well  as  for  the  rapidity  of  the  manufacture,  it  is  decidedly 
superior  to  all  others. 

Ores  which  contain  much  carbonic  acid,  water,  or  volatile 
matter,  were  at  one  time  invariably  subjected  to  a  prepara- 
tory process  of  calcination,  but  since  the  introduction  of  the 
hot-blast,  they  are  now  frequently  employed  in  the  raw  state. 


IRON.] 


[PlATE    1. 


Iron — ^Manufacture.  337 

The  calcination  is  sometimes  effected  in  the  open  air,  by  stack- 
ing the  ore  with  coal,  setting  fire  to  it,  and  allowing  it  to 
burn  out ;  but  this  method  is  liable  to  serious  objection.  It 
is  impossible  to  keep  the  temperature  uniform  throughout  the 
heap,  and  in  consequence,  while  some  portions  are  scarcely 
affected,  others  are  fused  together  into  large  masses,  which 
cannot  be  smelted  without  difficulty,  even  when  broken  up. 
Apart  from  the  irregularity  and  uncertainty  of  the  open  air 
process,  it  appears  to  be  more  expensive  than  the  calcination 
in  kilns,  when  the  admission  of  air  is  entirely  under  com- 
mand. These  ovens  or  kilns  are  usually  built  of  masonry, 
and  are  placed,  if  .possible,  on  a  level  with  the  charging 
platform  of  the  smelting  furnace.  The  argillaceous  ores  lose, 
during  this  process,  20  to  30  per  cent. ;  the  carbonaceous, 
30  to  40  per  cent,  of  their  weight. 

The  blast  furnace  consists  of  a  large  mass  of  masonry, 
usually  square  at  the  base,  from  which  the  sides  are  carried 
up  in  a  slightly  slanting  direction,  so  as  to  form,  externally,  a 
truncated  pyramid.  In  the  sides  there  are  large  arched  re- 
cesses, in  which  are  the  openings  into  the  furnace  for  the  ad- 
mission of  the  blast,  and  for  running  out  the  metal  and  cin- 
der ;  at  the  top  of  the  furnace  is  a  cylindrical  erection  of 
brickwork,  called  the  tunnel-head,  for  protecting  the  workmen 
from  the  heated  gases  rising  from  the  furnace,  and  having 
one  or  more  doors  through  which  the  charges  of  ore,  fuel, 
and  flux  are  thrown  into  the  furnace,  In  front,  protected 
by  a  roof,  is  the  casting-house,  where  the  metal  is  run  from 
the  furnace  into  moulds. 

Fig.  2  is  a  vertical  section,  and  fig.  3  a  plan  of  one  of  the 
furnaces  at  the  Dowlais  Iron  Works.  Mr.  Truran,  in  a  re- 
cently published  and  elaborate  work  on  iron,  has  figured  and 
described  it.  He  states  that  it  is  one  of  the  largest  class, 
38  feet  square  at  the  base,  diminishing  upward  3  inches  for 
every  vertical  foot,  till  it  attains  a  height  of  25  feet,  where 
the  square  form  ends  with  a  moulded  cap ;  above  this,  the 
form  is  circular,  diminishing  in  diameter  at  a  similar  rate,  and 
finishing  at  top  with  a  plain  moulded  cornice,  as  a  support 
for  the  charging  platform.  In  the  section  and  plan  A  is  the 
hearth,  8  feet  high  and  8  feet  in  diameter.  BB  the  boshes, 
rising  to  the  height  of  15  feet,  and  18  feet  wide  at  their 
greatest  diameter.  From  the  top  of  the  boshes  the  body  of 
22 


388  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  furnace  contracts,  in  a  barrel-shaped  curve,  so  that  at  the 
charging  platform  D,  at  a  height  of  50  feet,  it  is  only  ten  feet 
in  diameter ;  E  is  the  tunnel-head,  with  doors  of  iron,  to  admit 
the  charges  of  ore  and  fuel ;  FFF  the  tujere-houses,  arched 
over  and  spread  outward,  with  the  openings  into  the  furnace 
for  admitting  the  blast.  G,  the  opening  through  which  the 
iron  is  run  from  the  furnace.  The  exterior  is  generally  built 
of  stone,  and  requires  to  be  strongly  bound  with  iron  hoops, 
to  prevent  fracture  from  the  expansion  of  the  interior  by  the 
heat.  The  interior  is  lined  with  fire-brick  set  in  fire-clay, 
a  space  of  2  or  3  inches  being  left  between  the  two  courses, 
to  allow  the  expansion  of  the  inner  course.  The  hearth  and 
boshes  were  usually  constructed  of  refractory  sandstone  grit, 
or  conglomerate,  but  fire-bricks  are  now  chiefly  used,  and 
although  they  do  not  last  so  long,  they  are,  in  the  end,  more 
economical,  and  may  be  replaced  whenever  the  furnace  is 
blown  out.  The  proper  inclination  of  the  boshes  is  a  point 
of  much  importance,  so  that  the  materials,  whilst  smelting, 
may  neither  press  too  heavily  downward,  nor  yet  be  so  re- 
tarded as  to  adhere  in  a  half-liquid  state  to  the  brickwork, 
and  cool  there,  thus  forming  what  are  known  by  the  name  of 
scaffolds^  the  removal  of  which  is  a  source  of  great  incon- 
venience. 

Another  form  of  furnace  is  occasionally  used  for  smelting, 
called  the  cupola,  and  built  much  more  slightly  than  the 
blast  furnace.  Its  form  is  circular,  and  from  the  boshes  up- 
ward it  is  constructed  of  fire-brick,  one,  or  sometimes  two, 
courses  in  thickness.  It  is  strongly  bound  together  with 
wrought-iron  hoops,  and  pillars  of  cast-iron,  bolted  at  each 
end  to  imbedded  rings  of  the  same  metal,  rise  through  the 
foundation  to  the  summit  of  the  tuyere  arches,  giving  con- 
siderable firmness  and  stability  to  the  structure.  Cheapness 
and  facility  of  construction  are  much  in  its  favor,  and  although 
objections  have  been  made  to  the  thinness  of  its  sides,  as  per- 
mitting great  loss  of  heat  by  radiation,  it  has  met  with  very 
general  adoption. 

In  addition  to  the  cupola  furnace,  another  of  the  same 
character  has  of  late  years  been  introduced.  It  consists  of 
a  truncated  cone,  composed  entirely  of  boiler  plates  riveted 
together.  On  the  four  opposite  sides  recesses  are  cut  to  ad- 
mit the  tuyeres  and  the  opening  from  the  hearth  into  the 


Iron — Manufacture.  339 

casting-house.  The  interior  of  the  furnace  is  lined  with  fire- 
brick and  fire-claj  in  the  usual  way,  and  this  plate  furnace 
is  not  only  perfectly  secure,  as  regards  the  expansion  and 
contraction,  but  it  is  found  to  be  economical  and  to  answer 
every  purpose  in  common  with  the  large  stone  and  iron-bound 
furnaces. 

The  blast  is  usually  created  by  a  steam-engine ;  a  piston 
being  attached  to  the  extremity  of  the  beam,  working  in  a 
cylinder  of  large  diameter,  and  forcing  the  air  through  proper 
valves  into  a  large  spherical  reservoir,  constructed  of  boiler- 
plate, whence  its  own  elasticity  causes  it  to  flow  in  a  regular 
unintermitting  stream  into  the  furnace.  A  cylindrical  vessel, 
open  at  bottom,  and  immersed  in  a  pit  of  water,  has  some- 
times been  used  to  regulate  the  pressure  of  the  blast,  but  the 
water  evaporated  is  detrimental  to  the  working  of  the  furnace. 
The  nozzles  by  which  the  blast  is  directed  into  the  furnace 
are  made  of  cast  or  wrought-iron,  and  sometimes  a  current 
of  water  is  conveyed  round  their  extremities  to  keep  them 
cool.  The  number  of  blow-pipe  nozzles  to  each  furnace  varies 
at  different  works  ;  the  usual  number  is  three,  one  for  each 
of  the  tuyere  houses,  but  sometimes  six,  eight,  or  twelve  are 
employed  ;  it,  however,  appears  questionable  whether  this  is 
not  objectionable,  as  the  density  and  penetrating  power  of 
the  blast  is  considerably  diminished  by  this  system  of  diffusion. 
This,  however,  is  a  point  which  can  only  be  decided  by  prac- 
tice, and  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  smelter.  The 
usual  pressure  of  the  blast  as  it  enters  into  the  furnace  is 
3J  lbs.  per  square  inch,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  as  much  as 
5  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

The  communication  between  the  ground  and  the  tunnel- 
head  is  effected  in  various  ways.  In  South  Wales  the  fur- 
naces are  usually  built  on  a  declivity,  which  affords  ready 
means  of  access  from  behind ;  sometimes  an  incline  is  con- 
structed, or  other  contrivances,  such  as  the  balance  and  pneu- 
matic lifts,  are  resorted  to  for  the  elevation  of  the  materials. 

The  dimensions  and  form  of  the  blast  furnace  vary  greatly, 
according  to  the  fashion  of  the  district,  and  the  notions  of  the 
builder.  Yet  so  much  does  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
iron  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  furnace  and  strength  of  the 
blast,  that  we  may  venture  to  assert  that  the  production  varies 
in  the  ratio  of  the  cubical  contents  of  the  furnace,  and  the 


340  Five  Black  Arts. 

volume  of  air  admitted.  Mr.  Truran  gives  the  following 
particulars  of  the  Dowlais  Foundry  iron  furnace :  "  The 
capacity  is  275  cubic  yards.  It  is  blown  with  a  blast  of 
5390  cubic  feet  of  [cold]  air  per  minute.  The  materials 
charged  at  the  top  consist  of  calcined  argillaceous  ore,  coal, 
and  limestone.  The  yield  or  consumption  averages  48  cwts. 
of  calcined  ore,  50  cwts.  of  coal,  and  17  cwts.  of  broken 
limestone,  to  20  cwts.  of  crude  iron  obtained.  The  weekly 
make  of  iron  is  occasionally  over  130  tons.  The  weekly 
product  of  cinder  amounts  to  250  tons.  For  the  production 
of  white  iron  for  the  forge,  in  furnaces  of  the  same  capacity 
as  the  foregoing,  a  larger  volume  of  the  blast  is  employed, 
along  with  a  different  burden  of  materials.  The  blast  aver- 
ages 7370  feet  per  minute.  The  consumption  of  materials 
to  one  ton  of  iron  averages  28  cwts.  of  calcined  argillaceous 
ore,  10  cwts.  of  haematite,  10  cwts.  of  forge  and  finery 
cinders,  42  cwts.  of  coal,  and  14  cwts.  of  limestone.  With 
these  materials  the  weekly  produce  amounts  to  170  tons  of 
crude  iron,  and  310  tons  of  cinder." 

The  action  which  takes  place  in  the  blast  furnace  is  as 
follows  :  The  contents  being  raised  to  an  intense  heat  by 
the  combustion  of  the  fuel,  are  brought  into  a  softened  state  ; 
the  limestone  parts  with  its  carbonic  acid,  and  combining 
with  the  earthy  ingredients  of  the  ironstone,  forms,  with  them, 
a  liquid  slag,  whilst  the  separated  metallic  particles,  descend- 
ing slowly  through  the  furnace,  are  deoxidized  and  fused ;  in 
their  passage  they  imbibe  a  portion  of  carbon,  and  at  last 
settle  down  in  the  hearth,  from  whence  they  are  run  off  into 
pigs  about  every  twelve  hours ;  the  slag,  being  lighter,  floats 
upon  the  surface  of  the  liquid  metal,  and  is  constantly  flow- 
ing out  over  a  notch  in  the  dam-plate,  level  with  the  top 
of  the  hearth.  This  slag  indicates,  by  its  appearance,  the 
manner  in  which  the  furnace  is  working ;  thus,  if  the  cinder 
is  liquid,  nearly  transparent,  or  of  a  light  grayish  color,  and 
has  a  fracture  like  limestone,  a  favorable  state  of  the  furnace 
is  indicated.  Glints  of  blue,  yellow,  or  green  are  caused  by 
a  portion  of  oxide  of  iron  passing  into  the  slag,  and  show 
that  the  furnace  is  working  cold.  The  worst  appearance  of 
the  cinder  is,  however,  a  deep  brown  or  black  color,  the  slag 
flowing  in  a  broad  hot  rugged  stream,  and  indicating  that  the 


Iron — Manufacture.  84t 

supply  of  coke  is  not  sufficient  to  deoxidize  the  whole  of  the 
iron. 

During  the  process  of  smelting,  the  interior  of  the  furnace 
requires  to  be  very  carefully  watched.  The  stream  of  air 
constantly  rushing  in  at  the  tuyeres,  exerts  a  chilling  agency 
on  the  melted  matter  directly  opposed  to  it  at  its  entrance. 
The  consequence  of  this  is  the  formation  of  rude  perforated 
cones  of  indurated  scoriae,  stretching  from  either  side  hori- 
zontally into  the  furnace,  each  one  having  its  base  directly  over 
the  embouchure  of  a  blast-pipe.  When  these  project  only 
to  a  certain  extent,  they  are  favorable  to  the  working  of  the 
furnace,  as  the  blast  is  thrown  into  the  center,  and  prevented 
from  passing  up  the  sides  and  burning  the  brickwork.  Some- 
times, however,  when  the  furnace  is  driving  cold  and  slow, 
these  conduits  of  slag  become  so  strong,  and  jut  out  so  far 
as  to  meet  in  the  middle,  and  thus  cause  a  great  obstruction 
to  the  entrance  and  ascent  of  the  blast.  When  this  happens, 
there  is  usually  no  remedy  but  to  increase  the  burden,  that 
is,  to  increase  the  quantity  of  mine  or  ore  to  the  charge. 
This  causes  an  intense  heat,  the  furnace  is  said  to  work  hot, 
and  the  conduits  of  slag  drop  off  from  the  sides.  This, 
however,  is  followed  by  bad  as  well  as  good  consequences ; 
the  brickwork  is  frequently  melted,  and,  for  a  time,  the  iron 
produced  is  small  in  quantity  and  of  the  worst  quaUty.  To 
bring  the  furnace  again  to  its  proper  state,  the  burden  must 
be  reduced ;  the  sides  then  become  cool,  new  tubes  of  slag 
are  formed,  and  the  iron  produced  is  good. 

At  the  end  of  every  twelve  hours,  more  or  less,  the  furnace 
is  tapped,  that  is  to  say,  the  aperture  in  the  dam-stone,  which, 
at  the  commencement,  had  been  stopped  up  with  a  mixture  of 
loam  and  sand,  is  re-opened,  and  the  metal  contained  in  the 
hearth  allowed  to  flow  out  into  moulds,  made  in  the  sand  of 
the  cast-house  floor,  thus  forming  a  cast  or  sough  of  pigs. 
When  this  operation  ceases,  the  dam -stone  is  again  secured, 
and  the  work  proceeds  as  before.  In  this  manner  a  furnace 
is.  kept  continually  going,  night  and  day,  and  never  ceases  to 
work  until  repairs  are  necessary.  Incessant  action  has  even  been 
thought  necessary  to  the  successful  carrying  on  of  an  iron- 
work, but  the  example  of  perhaps  the  largest  ironmaster  in 
South  Wales  has  shown,  contrary  to  general  practice  in  that 
district,  that  smelting  may  be  discontinued  for  at  least  one 


342  Five  Black  Arts. 

day  in  the  week  without  any  very  serious  derangement  of 
operations. 

Thus  far  we  have  confined  our  observations  to  the  produc- 
tion of  iron  by  the  cold-blast  process ;  we  have  now  to  con- 
sider the  changes  introduced  by  the  employment  of  a  heated 
blast. 

In  the  year  1828,  Mr.  J.  Beaumont  Neilson,  a  practical 
engineer  at  Glasgow,  took  out  a  patent  for  an  "  improved 
application  of  air  to  produce  heat  in  fires,  forges,  and  fur- 
naces, where  bellows  or. other  blowing  apparatus  are  re- 
quired." Mr.  Neilson  proposed  to  pass  the  current  of  air 
through  suitably  shaped  vessels,  where  it  was  to  be  heated 
hefore  it  entered  the  furnace.  In  this  simple  substitution  of 
a  hot-blast,  heated  in  a  separate  apparatus,  for  a  cold-blast 
heated  in  the  furnace  itself,  consists  the  whole  invention. 

Like  most  other  improvements,  the  progress  of  this  was  at 
first  slow.  Retarded  by  practical  difficulties,  which  beset  all 
new  processes  in  their  first  use — stopped  every  now  and  then 
by  the  prejudices  of  custom  and  ignorance,  which  cling  with 
inveterate  tenacity  to  maxims  of  established  practice,  and  re- 
pel indiscriminately  innovations  which  improve  and  those 
which  modify  without  improving — the  invention  was  more 
than  once  on  the  point  of  being  abandoned.  A  great  part 
of  the  interest  in  its  possible  remuneration  was  transferred 
by  the  inventor  to  strangers,  whose  combined  efforts  and  influ- 
ence were  necessary  to  insure  its  success.  But  though  thus 
tardy  in  its  first  steps  and  feeble  in  its  early  efforts,  the  hot-blast 
process  is  now.  adopted  at  the  greater  number  of  the  iron- works 
of  Great  Britain,  and  other  parts  of  Europe  and  America. 

It  is  perhaps  not  generally  known  that  practical  men,  pre- 
vious to  Mr.  Neilson's  invention,  universally  believed  that 
the  colder  the  blast  the  better  was  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
the  iron  produced ;  and  this  opinion  appeared  to  be  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  the  furnaces  worked  better  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  Acting  on  such  views,  the  ironmaster  actually  re- 
sorted to  artificial  means  of  refrigeration,  to  reduce  the  tem- 
perature of  the  blast  before  it  entered  the  furnace.  The 
fact  of  the  improved  action  of  the  furnace  in  winter  may  per- 
haps be  explained  as  a  consequence  of  the  diminished  amount 
of  the  aqueous  vapor  contained  in  the  atmosphere  in  cold 
weather ;  and  the  opinion  that  the  low  temperature  is  the 


Iron — Manufacture.  343 

cause  of  the  alleged  increase  of  production  has  been  shown 
to  be  wrong  bj  the  success  of  Mr.  Neilson*s  invention. 

This  simple  invention  affects  only  the  transit  of  the  air  from 
the  blowing  cylinder  to  the  furnace,  an  oven  or  stove  being 
interposed,  through  which,  in  appropriately  shaped  vessels, 
the  air  in  conducted,  and  in  which  it  is  heated  to  600°  or 
800°  Fahr.,  or  to  any  other  temperature  adapted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  smelting. 

The  earliest  and  simplest  plan  by  which  the  blast  was  heat- 
«d  is  shown  in  the  sketch,  fig.  4.  In  an  oven  of  brickwork 
•000,  with  a  fire  fed  by  the  door  D,  a  large  cylindrical  tube 
cr  receiver  h  A,  made  of  riveted  boiler-plate,  about  3  feet  in 
dameter,  and  8  or  10  feet  long,  was  placed.  The  pipes,  B 
and  S,  attached  to  the  receiver  A  A  at  the  opposite  ends, 
communicated  with  the  blowing-cylinder  and  smel ting-furnace 
respectively.  Lunular  partitions  pp  p,  projecting  from  op- 
posite sides  on  the  interior  of  the  receiver,  caused  the  air 
passing  through  it  to  inpinge  alternately  first  on  one  side  and 
then  on  the  other,  in  order  that  the  temperature  might  be 
uniformly  and  effectively  communicated  from  the  metal  to 
the  blast.  By  this  means  a  moderate  current  of  air  has  been 
heated  up  to  300°  or  400°  Fahr.*  ^ 

The  figures  of  the  transverse  pipes  vary  considerably  at 
different  iron-works.  Sometimes  they  rise  up  and  form  a 
large  semicircular  arch  over  the  fire,  8  or  10  feet  perpendicu- 
larly, and  are  then  connected  by  an  arch  at  the  top ;  some- 
times they  cross  the  fire  in  the  form  of  a  pointed  arch,  vari- 
ously acuminate,  or  a  single  large  tube  is  used,  traversing 
the  furnace  in  a  long  spiral  direction.  Their  cross-section 
is  as  various  as  the  form  in  which  they  are  bent ;  pipes  of 
circular,  flattened,  elliptical,  rectangular,  heart-shaped,  and 
other  sectional  forms  have  been  employed,  in  order  to  increase 
the  heating  surface  in  proportion  to  the  volume  of  the  blast. 
All  these  forms  of  apparatus,  although  admirably  adapted  for 
heating  the  air,  are  liable  to  fracture,  from  the  unequal  ex- 
pansion of  the  metal. 

The  more  difficult  the  reduction  of  the  ironstone  the  smaller 
must  be  the  diameter  of  the  hearth,  so  as  to  enable  the  blast 
to  penetrate  and  circulate  throughout  the  whole  of  its  con- 
tents.    In  other  conditions,  where  the  ores  are  easily  reduced, 

*  Various  modifications  of  this  plan  are  in  use. 


844  Five  Black  Arts. 

hearths  of  9  feet  diameter  have  been  introduced  with  great  / 
advantage,  and  that  without  detriment  to  the  quality  of  the/ 
iron  produced.     The  diameter  of  the  body  of  the  furnace  is! 
likewise  regulated  by  the  quality  of  the  materials  used,  and  i 
in  cases  where  the  coal  is  not  bituminous,  and  the  ore  hard,/ 
a  large  diameter  is  found  to  work  very  irregularly ;  and  thef 
results  have  been,  where  furnaces  have  been  erected  18  feeil 
diameter,  to  have  them  reduced  to  only  6  feet.  / 

The  height  of  the  furnace  is  also  regulated  by  the  nature 
of  the  materials  and  the  strength  of  the  blast  by  which  they 
are  reduced.  Sometimes,  when  the  coal  is  soft  and  crushef 
by  the  superincumbent  pressure,  it  is  bound  or  compressed 
such  an  extent  as  to  prevent  the  blast  from  penetrating  the  mass 
and  causes  an  irregular  working  of  the  furnace  ;  and,  mor( 
over,  under  these  conditions,  it  makes  what  is  called  white 
silvery  iron. 

The  pressure  of  the  blast  requires  also  to  be  regulated  to 
suit  the  materials,  and,  according  to  the  workings  at  Coltness 
Works,  the  pressure  is  about  4  lbs.  on  the  square  inch,  and  as 
much  as  10,000  cubic  feet  of  air  is  discharged  into  the  fur- 
nace per  minute.  The  temperature  of  the  blast  is  594°  Fahr., 
and  the  area  of  the  heating  surface  of  the  apparatus  for 
raising  that  temperature  is  3500  square  feet. 

The  quantity  of  materials  to  make  a  ton  of  iron  at  these 
works  varies  in  some  relative  proportion  to  their  densities  ; 
but  the  following  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  of  the  con- 
sumption of  fuel,  ore,  limestone,  etc. : 


Ton, 

Cwt. 

Ton. 

Cwt. 

1 

10  of  raw  coal. 

0 

4  of  coal  for  heaters. 

1 

17  of  calcined  ironstone. 

0 

4  of    •*    for  blowing  engine. 

0 

12  of  broken  limestone. 

With  the  above  charges  the  furnaces  will  produce  from  168  to  170  tons 
per  week,  or  8700  tons  of  good  iron  per  annum. 

With  regard  to  the  advantages  and  defects  of  the  hot-blast 
process,  much  has  been  said  on  both  sides,  and  the  question 
does  not  appear  by  any  means  settled.  It  is  asserted,  on  the 
one  hand,  that  iron  reduced  by  the  hot-blast  loses  much  of 
its  strength,  whilst,  on  the  other,  it  is  contended  that  the 
quality  of  the  iron  is  richer,  more  fluid,  and  better  adapted 
for  general  purposes  than  that  produced  by  the  cold-blast. 
The  advocates  of  the  hot-blast  say  that  the  process  has  in- 


moN.  ] 


[  Plate  2. 


Fio  4. 


Iron — Manufacture.  345 

creased  the  production  and  diminished  the  consumption  of 
coal  three  or  four  fold ;  and  the  upholders  of  the  cold-blast 
maintain  that  the  same  effects  may  be  produced,  to  almost 
the  same  extent,  by  a  judicious  proportion  of  the  shape  and 
size  of  the  interior  of  the  furnace,  a  denser  blast,  and  greater 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent  to  the  process. 

On  these  points  it  appears  to  us  that  although  the  hot-blast 
has  enabled  the  manufacturer  to  smelt  inferior  ores,  cinder- 
heaps,  and  other  improper  materials,  and  to  send  into  the 
market  an  inferior  description  of  iron  ;  this  is  no  reason  for 
its  rejection,  but  rather  an  argument  in  its  favor.  It  is  true 
that  when  a  strong  rigid  iron  is  required  for  such  works  as 
bridges  or  artillery,  the  somewhat  uncertain  character  of  hot- 
blast  metal  renders  it  objectionable,  but  this  appears  to  be  due 
rather  to  the  carelessness  or  want  of  attention  in  the  manu- 
facture than  to  the  use  of  heated  air  or  defects  in  the  process. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  hot-blast,  by  maintaining  a  higher 
temperature  in  the  furnace,  insures  more  eflfectually  the  com- 
bination of  the  carbon  with  the  iron,  and  produces  a  fluid 
metal  of  good  working  qualities,  generally  superior  to  cold- 
blast  iron,  in  cases  where  great  strength  is  not  required  ;  and, 
moreover,  we  have  yet  to  learn  why  even  the  strongest  and  most 
rigid  iron  cannot  be  made  by  this  process.  The  comparative 
strength  of  hot  and  cold-blast  iron  will,  however,  be  given  in 
another  part  of  this  article  ;  for  the  present  it  is  sufficient 
to  observe  that  the  results  of  the  experiments  are  not  unfa- 
vorable to  the  hot-blast  iron,  either  as  regards  its  resistance 
to  a  transverse  strain,  or  its  power  to  resist  impact. 

Dr.  Clark,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Aberdeen,  investigated  the  merits  of  the  hot  and  cold-blast 
process  in  regard  to  the  consumption  of  fuel,  as  early  as 
1834-5.  He  states,  that  after  the  hot-blast  had  been  brought 
fully  into  operation  at  the  Clyde  Iron  Works,  *'  during  the 
first  six  months  of  the  year  1833,  one  ton  of  cast-iron  was 
made  by  means  of  2  tons  5i  cwt.  of  coal,  which  had  not 
previously  to  be  converted  into  coke  ;  adding  to  this  8  cwt. 
of  coal  for  heating,  we  have  2  tons  13 J  cwt.  of  coal  re- 
quired to  make  one  ton  of  iron.  In  1829,  when  the  cold- 
blast  was  in  operation,  8  tons  IJ  cwt.  of  coal  had  to  be 
used.  This  being  almost  exactly  three  times  as  much,  we 
have  from  the  change  of  the  cold-blast  to  the  hot,  combined 


346  Five  Black  Arts. 

■with  the  use  of  coal  instead  of  coke,  three  times  as  much 
now  made  from  the  same  quantity  of  coal."  Dr.  Clark  adds 
the  following  statistics  of  the  Clyde  Iron  Works : 

"  In  1829,  the  weekly  produce  of  three  furnaces,  cold  air 
and  coke  being  used,  was  110  tons  14  cwt. ;  and  the  aver- 
age of  coal  to  one  ton  of  iron  was  8  tons  1  cwt.  1  qr. 

"  In  1830,  the  weekly  produce  of  three  furnaces,  coke,  and 
air  at  300°  Fahr.  being  used,  was  162  tons  2  cwt. ;  and  the 
average  of  coal  to  one  ton  of  iron  was  reduced  to  5  tons  3 
cwt.  1  qr. 

"  In  1833,  the  weekly  produce  of  four  furnaces,  raw  coal, 
and  air  heated  to  600°  being  used,  was  245  tons;  and  the 
average  of  coal  to  one  ton  of  iron  was  reduced  to  2  tons  5 
cwt.  1  qr. 

"On  the  whole  then,  the  application  of  the  hot-blast  has 
caused  the  same  fuel  to  reduce  three  times  as  much  iron  as 
before,  and  the  same  blast  twice  as  much." 

This  decrease  in  the  amount  of  fuel  and  blast  required  for 
the  reduction  of  iron.  Dr.  Clark  accounts  for  by  showing  that 
in  an  ordinary  furnace,  "  2  cwt.  of  air  a  minute  or  6  tons 
an  hour  are  injected  into  the  furnace."  This  he  considers 
"  a  tremendous  refrigeratory  passing  through  the  hottest  part 
of  the  furnace,"  and  to  a  great  extent  repressing  the  temper- 
ature which  is  necessary  for  the  complete  and  rapid  reduction 
of  the  iron. 

Mr.  Truran  considers  that  "  writers  on  the  hot-blast  have 
greatly  exaggerated  the  effects  of  this  invention  on  the  iron 
manufacture  of  this  country.  If  we  are  to  believe  the  ma- 
jority of  them,  the  great  reductions  which  have  been  effected 
within  the  last  25  years,  in  the  quantities  of  fuel  and  flux  to 
smelt  a  given  weight  of  iron,  and  the  large  increase  of  make 
from  the  furnaces,  is  entirely  owing  to  the  use  of  this  inven- 
tion. That  the  hot-blast,  under  certain  circumstances,  has 
also  effected  a  saving  in  the  consumption  of  fuel,  and  also 
augmented  the  weekly  make,'  we  freely  admit.  But  the 
saving  of  fuel,  and  increase  of  make  due  to  its  employment, 
is  not  generally  one-fourth  of  the  quantity  which  writers 
have  asserted."  Here  Mr.  Truran  is  at  issue  with  Dr.  Clark, 
and  denies  the  cooling  effect  of  a  cold-blast.  He  attributes 
the  effects  of  a  heated-blast,  "  first  to  the  caloric  thrown  into 
the  furnace  along  with  the  blast,  enabling  a  corresponding 


Iron — Manufacture.  347 

quantity  of  coal  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  burden  of  mate- 
rials, with  a  proportionate  reduction  in  the  volume  of  blast, 
the  effects  of  which  are  seen  in  an  augmentation  of  the  make, 
but  do  not  result  in  the  saving  of  fuel ;  secondly,  to  the  re- 
duced volume  of  blast  and  large  proportion  of  caloric  which 
it  carries  into  the  furnace,  causing  a  diminished  consumption 
of  fuel  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  furnace."  Although  we 
do  not  agree  with  all  Mr.  Truran's  strictures  on  the  hot-blast, 
the  consumption  of  fuel  in  the  throat  is,  nevertheless,  a  ques- 
tion well  worthy  of  investigation.  The  combustion  is  of 
course  largely  increased  by  the  narrow  form  of  throat  given 
to  furnaces,  which  greatly  increases  the  effect  of  the  blast 
there,  and  accounts  for  the  diflSculty  of  using  those  kinds  of 
coal,  in  the  raw  state,  which  splinter  if  rapidly  heated.  If 
Mr.  Truran's  conjectures  be  correct,  and  it  be  found,  that 
by  increasing  the  area  of  the  throat,  raw  coal  and  anthracite 
can  be  advantageously  used  with  the  cold -blast,  the  superi- 
ority of  the  hot-blast  will  not  be  so  decidedly  marked.  This 
must,  however,  be  determined  by  practice ;  as  at  present, 
certainly,  it  is  well  known  that  the  anthracite  and  splint  coal 
can  be  used  most  effectively  and  economically  with  the  hot- 
blast. 

We  quote  from  one  more  authority  on  this  subject.  M. 
Dufrenoy,  in  his  report  to  the  Director-General  of  Mines  in 
France,  states,  that  upon  heating  the  air  proceeding  from  the 
blowing  cylinder  up  to  612°  Fahr.,  a  considerable  saving  in 
fuel  was  effected  by  the  use  of  raw  coal  instead  of  coke,  and 
that  this  caused  no  derangement  of  the  working  of  the  fur- 
nace or  deterioration  of  the  iron  produced.  On  the  contrary, 
"  the  quality  of  the  metal  was  improved,  and  a  furnace  which, 
when  charged  with  coke,  produced  only  about  half  No.  1  and 
half  No.  2  pig-iron,  gave  a  much  larger  proportion  of  No.  1 
after  the  substitution  of  raw  coal.  Besides  this,  the  quantity 
of  limestone  was  considerably  diminished."  This  last  cir- 
cumstance, according  to  M.  Dufrenoy,  is  due  to  the  increased 
temperature  of  the  furnace,  which  fuses  more  readily  the 
earthy  matter  and  other  impurities  in  combination  with  the 
ores. 

To  show  the  saving  effected,  M.  Dufrenoy  gives  the  quan- 
tities used  in  each  of  the  experiments  at  the  Clyde  Iron 
Works : 


848  Five  Black  Arts. 

In  1829,  the  combustion  being  produced  by  cold  air,  the  consumption  for 
one  ton  of  iron  was — 

Tons.    Cwt.    Tons.    Cwt. 
Coal— for  fusion,  3  tons  of  coke, 

corresponding  with  .  6  13 

"      for  blowing  engine  .         1  0 

Total  coal  used      .  .  .     •       .  7        13 

Limestone  ....  0        lOJ 

In  1831,  the  furnaces  being  blown  with  air  heated  to  450°  Fahr. — 

Tons.    Cwt.    Tons.    Cwt. 

Coal — for  fusion,  1  ton  18  cwt. 

coke,  corresponding  with  .  4  6 

''      for  the  hot  air  apparatus      .  0  5 

"       for  blowing  engine  .  0  7 


Total  coal  used      ....  4        18 

Limestone  ....  09 

In  July,  1833,  the  temperature  of  the  blast  being  raised  to  612°  Fahr., 
and  the  fusion  effected  by  raw  coal,  the  consumption  per  ton  of  iron  was — 

Ton«.    Cwt.    Tons.    Cwt. 
Coal— for  fusion     .  .  .  2        0 

"      for  the  hot  air  apparatus     .  0        8 

"      for  blowing  engine  .  0      11 


Total  coal  used     ....  2        19 

Limestone  ....  07 

Since  that  time,  the  employment  of  a  blast  heated  to  800° 
or  900°  has  still  further  increased  the  weekly  production  and 
saving  of  fuel. 

The  Waste  Gases. — From  the  description  that  we  have 
given  of  the  smelting  operations,  it  is  evident  that  a  large 
volume  of  gaseous  products  are  constantly  escaping  at  the 
top  of  the  blast-furnace.  These  are  found  to  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  unconsumed  inflammable  gas,  capable  of  de- 
veloping heat,  and  in  countries  where  fuel  is  expensive,  it  is 
of  great  importance  that  these  should  be  applied  to  useful 
purposes,  and  not  be  wasted  in  the  atmosphere.  Various  con- 
trivances have  been  adopted  for  this  purpose,  and  in  some 
places,  particularly  on  the  Contirient,  they  have  been  utilized 
with  great  economy. 

To  enable  the  waste  gases  to  be  collected  and  applied  to 
raising  steam,  heating  hot-blast  stoves,  etc.,  without  detri- 
ment to  the  working  of  the  blast-furnace,  it  is  necessary  to 
withdraw  them  at  an  elevation  where  they  have  completed 
their  work,  yet  at  such  a  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  fur- 


Iron — Manufacture.  349 

# 
nace  that  they  may  be  extracted  in  a  dry  state,  and  before 
they  come  into  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  so  as  to  cause 
combustion.  This  may  be  effected,  either  by  increasing  the 
height  of  the  blast-furnace,  withdrawing  a  portion  of  the 
gases  through  apertures  in  the  side,  or,  if  the  furnace  be  not 
too  large,  by  closing  the  top  of  the  furnace  with  a  movable 
door. 

The  Conversion  of  Crude  into  Malleable  Iron, 

The  conversion  of  the  carburized  crude  iron,  obtained  from 
the  blast-furnace,  into  malleable  or  wrought  iron  is  effected 
by  several  operations  of  an  oxidizing  character,  in  which  it 
is  sought  to  separate,  in  the  gaseous  state,  the  carbon  con- 
tained in  the  iron,  by  combining  it  with  oxygen,  whilst  the 
other  metals  alloyed  with  the  iron  and  the  phosphorus  pass 
into  the  slag. 

In  reference  to  subsequent  operations,  the  iron  produced 
in  the  smelting  furnace  may  be  be  divided  into  two  kinds — 
that  reduced  by  charcoal  and  that  reduced  by  coke  or  raw 
coal.  When  charcoal  iron  has  to  be  converted  by  charcoal, 
as  in  Sweden,  it  is  decarburized  in  the  charcoal  refinery,  with 
or  without  an  intervening  process.  Where  coal  can  be  ob- 
tained, however,  it  is  now  usually  converted  by  the  process 
of  puddling.  Pig-iron  produced  by  coke  or  coal  is  converted 
into  malleable  iron  either  by  decarburation  in  the  refinery 
or  oxidizing  hearth,  and  subsequent  puddling,  or  it  is  con- 
verted at  once  in  the  puddling  furnace  by  the  process  of 
boiling,  which  is  equally  effective,  and  is  now  more  generally 
practiced. 

This  last  process,  as  the  one  most  generally  adopted  in 
Great  Britain,  deserves  a  special  notice,  and  we  are  fortunate 
in  having  before  us  the  particulars  of  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  conducted  by  Messrs.  Rushton  and  Eckersley  of  Bolton. 
This  establishment  is  probably  one  of  the  most  modern  and 
complete  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom ;  it  is  one  that  has 
spared  no  expense  in  the  application  of  useful  inventions,  and 
has  kept  pace  with  every  improvement  that  has  taken  place 
in  the  manufacture  of  bar  and  plate  iron  for  the  last  fifteen 
years. 

The  machinery  and  appliances  at  these  works  consist  of— 


350  Five  Black  Arts.  x 

6  Steam  engines,  of  180  total  nominal  HP. 

2  Five-ton  and  2  fifty-cwt.  steam  hammers. 

3  Helve  hammers.^ 

1  Set  of  puddled  iron  rolls. 

1  Set  of  boiler  plate  rolls. 

1  Merchant  train  and  balling  mill. 
16  Puddling  fnrnaces. 
14  Balling  and  scrap  furnaces. 
And  other  machinery,  such  as  plate  and  bar  shears,  lathes,  etc. 

At  Messrs.  Rushton  and  Eckersley's  works,  a  small  pro- 
portion of  the  Cumberland  haematite  ore  is  mixed  with  the 
crude  pig-iron  to  be  converted,  as  it  is  found  to  assist  in  the 
process  of  boiling  in  the  puddling  furnace,  and  in  other  re- 
spects to  facilitate  the  process  and  improve  the  quality  of  the 
iron. 

The  crude  pig-iron  is  assorted  according  to  the  degree  and 
uniformity  of  its  carburization,  and  classed  as  Nos.  1,  2,  3, 
etc. ;  No.  1  being  most  highly  carburizod,  No.  2  less  so,  and 
so  on  to  No.  4,  which  contains  much  more  oxygen  than  the 
others.  The  carbon  combined  with  iron  gives  it  fusibility  and 
fluidity,  but  deprives  it  of  ductility.  To  render  it  malleable 
and  capable  of  being  welded,  it  must  be  deprived  as  far  as 
possible  of  all  the  extraneous  substances  which  have  been 
mixed  with  it  in  the  blast-furnace,  more  especially  of  the  car- 
bon. Prima  facie,  therefore,  it  would  appear  that  the  highly 
carburized  pig-iron  is  the  most  suitable  for  casting,  whilst  that 
containing  least  carbon  is  best  adapted  for  conversion  into 
malleable  iron ;  hence,  in  the  trade,  the  crude  iron  is  divided 
into  foundry  and  forge  pigs. 

The  pigs,  however,  in  which  carbon  most  predominates,  and 
which,  as  a  rule,  have  been  most  effectually  separated  from 
all  other  impurities  during  the  process  of  smelting,  are  in  many 
respects  preferable  for  the  manufacture  of  wrought  iron ;  up 
to  this  time,  however,  great  practical  difficulties  have  attended 
the  decarburization  of  iron  containing  so  much  carbon,  and 
the  white  or  forge  iron  is  almost  always  preferred,  measures 
having  been  taken  for  depriving  it  of  the  metals  and  earthy 
impurities  not  separated  in  the  blast-furnace. 

With  regard  to  the  process  of  refining,  we  may  observe 
that  the  crude  iron  is  melted  in  a  hollow  fire,  and  partially 
decarburized  by  the  action  of  a  blast  of  air  forced  over  its 
surface  by  a  fan  or  blowing  engine.  The  carbon  having  a 
greater  affinity  for  the  oxygen  than  for  the  iron,  combines 


Iron — Manufacture.  351 

"with  it,  and  passes  off  as  gaseous  carbonic  oxide  or  carbonic 
acid.  During  this  process,  a  portion  of  the  silicum,  etc.,  is 
fused  out  and  separated  from  the  iron.  It  is  obvious  from 
the  above  that  the  iron  to  be  refined,  being  placed  in  contact 
with  fuel  at  a  high  temperature,  is  liable  to  be  deteriorated 
by  the  admixture  of  sulphur  and  other  impurities  of  the  fuel ; 
and  as  the  iron  is  only  partially  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
blast,  the  operation  is  necessarily,  under  these  circumstances, 
imperfect.  From  the  refinery  the  metal  is  run  out  into  large 
moulds,  and  is  then  broken  up  into  what  is  technically  dis- 
tinguished as  ''•plate-metal.^^ 

The  process  of  puddling  succeeds  that  of  refining ;  and 
in  this  operation  the  reverberatory  furnace  is  employed,  with 
the  fire  separated  by  a  partition  or  bridge  from  the  hearth, 
on  which  is  placed  the  metal  to  be  puddled.  By  this  ar- 
rangement the  flame  is  conducted  over  the  surface  of  the 
metal,  creating  an  intense  heat,  though  the  deleterious  por- 
tions of  the  fuel  cannot  mix  with  the  iron.  In  this  furnace 
the  iron  is  kept  in  a  state  of  fusion,  whilst  the  workman, 
called  the  "  puddler,"  by  means  of  a  rake  or  rabble,  agitates 
the  metal  so  as  to  expose,  as  far  as  he  is  able,  the  whole  of 
the  charge  to  the  action  of  the  oxygen  passing  over  it  from 
the  fire.  By  this  means  the  carbon  is  oxidized,  and  the  metal 
is  gradually  reduced  to  a  tough,  pasty  condition,  and  subse- 
quently to  a  granular  form,  somewhat  resembling  heaps  of 
boiled  rice  with  the  grains  greatly  enlarged.  In  this  condi- 
tion of  the  furnace  the  cinder  or  earthy  impurities  yield  to 
the  intense  heat,  and  flow  off  from  the  mass  over  the  bottom 
in  a  highly  fluid  state. 

The  iron  at  this  stage  is  comparatively  pure,  and  quickly 
becomes  capable  of  agglutination ;  the  puddler  then  collects 
the  metallic  granules  or  particles  with  his  rabble,  and  rolls 
them  together,  backward  and  forward,  over  the  furnace  bot- 
tom, into  balls  of  convenient  dimensions  (about  the  size  of 
thirteen-inch  shells),  when  he  removes  them  from  the  furnace 
to  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  hammer  or  mechanical 
pressure  necessary  to  give  to  the  iron  homogeneity  and  fiber. 
These  processes  of  refining  and  puddling  have  universally 
been  employed  till  recently  ;  but  improvements  have  rendered 
it  simpler,  and  the  refining  process  is  now  very  generally 
abolished. 


352  Five  Black  Arts. 

Shortly  after  the  employment  of  the  puddling  process,  it 
was  found  advantageous  to  mix  a  portion  of  crude  iron  with 
the  refined  plate  metal,  the  expense  of  the  process  of  refin- 
ing being  saved  upon  the  iron  used  in  the  crude  state  ;  and 
trusting  to  the  decarburizing  effects  of  the  puddling  furnace, 
it  was  found  that  the  refining  process  might  be  altogether  dis- 
pensed with,  if  the  crude  iron  containing  a  proportion  of  ox- 
ygen and  very  little  carbon  was  employed.  In  this  single 
process  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  as  all  the  carbon  has  to  be 
got  rid  of  in  the  puddling  furnace,  the  evolution  of  gas  is 
much  more  violent,  the  fluid  iron  boiling  and  bubbling  ener- 
getically during  the  period  of  its  disengagement,  and  hence 
the  operation  has  acquired  the  popular  name  of  the  "  boiling" 
process. 

In  this  operation  the  pig-iron  when  melted  is  more  fluid, 
on  account  of  containing  a  greater  proportion  of  carbon  than 
the  metal  from  the  refinery,  and  requires  more  labor  in  stir- 
ring it  about  and  submitting  it  to  the  action  of  the  current  of 
air ;  the  process,  moreover,  is  attended  by  a  greater  waste 
of  iron  than  puddling  either  plate,  or  crude  iron  and  plate 
mixed,  but  not  so  great  a  loss  as  in  the  two  operations  of  re- 
fining and  puddling.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  the 
superior  fluidity  of  the  iron  in  the  boiling  process  has  a  more 
injurious  action  on  the  furnace.  Notwithstanding  these  ob- 
jections, the  system  of  boiling  without  the  intermediate  pro- 
cess of  refining  has  been  gaining  ground  for  the  last  ten  years, 
and  in  many  places  has  entirely  superseded  the  use  of  the 
refinery  ;  recent  events  have  therefore  led  to  the  conclusion, 
that  in  a  short  time  the  refining  process  will  have  become  a 
thing  of  the  past. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  secure  a  more  sci- 
entific and  perfect  decarburization  of  the  crude  iron,  but 
without  success.  One  improvement,  however,  recently  pat- 
ented by  Mr.  James  Nasmyth,  gives  promise  of  making  the 
boiling  process  as  nearly  perfect  as  we  may  hope  to  see  it. 
It  has  been  in  use  for  two  years  at  the  Bolton  Iron  Works, 
and  from  its  constant  employment  in  the  puddling  furnaces 
of  that  establishment,  it  has  given  direct  proof  of  its  utility, 
and  is  gradually  extending  itself  among  the  large  manufac- 
turers as  its  advantages  become  known. 

The  invention  consists  of  the  introduction  of  a  small  quan- 


Iron — Manufacture.  353 

tity  of  steam  at  about  5  lbs.  pressure  per  square  inch,  into 
the  molten  metal  as  soon  as  it  is  fused,  as  the  oxygen  of  the 
steam  has  at  that  high  temperature  a  greater  affinity  for  car- 
bon than  for  the  hydrogen  with  which  it  is  combined  or  for 
the  iron,  the  carbon  is  rapidly  oxidized  off.  The  liberated 
hydrogen  has  no  affinity  for  the  iron,  but  unites  with  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  arsenic,  etc. — substances  very  injurious  to  the 
quality  of  the  iron,  if  present  even  in  very  minute  quantities, 
and  yet  frequently  found  in  the  ores  and  fuel. 

The  mode  of  operating  is  as  follows  :  The  steam  is  con- 
veyed from  the  boiler  to  a  vertical  pipe  fixed  near  the  fur- 
nace door,  having  at  its  lower  end  a  small  tap  or  syphon,  to 
let  off  the  condensed  steam,  and  prevent  its  being  blown  into 
the  furnace.  A  cock  with  several  jointed  pieces  of  pipe  are 
fastened  to  the  flange  of  the  vertical  pipe,  so  as  to  form,  as 
it  were,  jointed  bracket  pipes,  somewhat  similar  to  those  of 
gas-pipes,  which  allow  free  motion  in  every  direction.  This 
apparatus  is  introduced  into  the  furnace,  immediately  the  iron 
is  melted,  the  puddler  moving  it  slowly  about  in  the  molten 
iron,  while  the  steam  pours  upon  it  through  the  bent  end  of 
'he  tube.  In  the  course  of  from  five  to  eight  minutes  the 
mass  begins  to  thicken,  the  steam  pipe  is  withdrawn,  and  the 
operation  finished  in  the  ordinary  way  with  the  common  iron 
rabble.  The  time  saved  by  this  process  in  every  operation  or 
heat^  as  it  is  technically  called,  averages  from  ten  to  fifteen 
minutes,  and  that  during  the  hottest  and  most  laborious  part  of 
the  operation. 

By  means  of  this  apparatus,  the  highly  carburized  pig-iron, 
which  is  the  most  free  from  impurities,  is  rendered  malleable 
in  one  furnace  operation,  without  the  deteriorating  adjuncts  of 
the  refining  and  puddling  process  as  ordinarily  practiced  ;  in 
this  operation  no  deleterious  substance  can  combine  with  the 
iron,  whilst  in  the  refinery  process  the  mixture  of  the  fuel 
and  metal  is  liable  to  deteriorate  the  latter  with  sulphur,  sili- 
cura,  etc.  This  new  process,  it  is  affirmed,  has  a  beneficial 
effect  in  purifying  the  iron  with  greater  economy  and  rapid- 
ity than  any  other  process  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 

Irrespective  of  the  improvements  just  described,  there  is 
another  which  is  extensively  used  on  the  Continent,  denom- 
inated the  Silesian  gas  furnace.     The  new  Silesian  furnaces 
which  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  in  that  country, 
23 


854  Five  Black  Arts. 

in  place  of  our  reverberatory  air  furnaces,  and  are  said,  on 
good  authority,  to  be  a  very  great  improvement,  not  only  in 
regard  to  the  entire  prevention  of  smoke  and  the  economy 
of  fuel,  but  also  in  simplifying  the  wrought-iron  manufacture, 
and  enabling  a  less  skilled  class  of  workmen  to  manage  the 
furnaces. 

The  chief  feature  is  the  gas  generator,  which  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  close  brick  chamber  with  an  opening  at  the  bot- 
tom for  the  admission  of  air  from  a  fan,  by  means  of  which 
the  gases  are  driven  out  of  the  chamber  into  the  furnace 
amongst  the  iron  to  be  heated.  At  the  point  where  the  gases 
enter  the  furnace,  a  series  of  tuyeres  are  provided  for  the  ad- 
mission of  air  from  the  same  fan.  The  pipes  that  convey  the 
air  and  the  gas  from  the  retort  to  the  tuyeres  are  both  pro- 
vided with  valves  in  order  that  the  attendant  may  modify  the 
quantity  from  either  source,  so  as  to  produce  any  intensity  of 
flame  the  work  may  require,  and  also  to  produce  perfect  com- 
bustion, thus  placing  the  entire  action  of  the  furnace  under 
complete  control.  It  is  about  eleven  years  since  these  fur- 
naces were  first  introduced,  and  notwithstanding  the  prejudices 
that  were  naturally  raised  against  them,  they  are  said  to  be 
now  extensively  adopted  in  the  Silesian  district,  and  in  great 
favor  with  both  the  master  and  the  workmen. 

In  this  description  of  furnace  there  appear  to  be  three 
great  advantages  over  the  air  furnace — 

Is^.  The  entire  absence  of  smoke  in  consequence  of  com- 
plete combustion. 

•  2(i.  The  saving  of  upward  of  33  per  cent,  in  fuel,  from 
the  whole  of  the  gaseous  products  being  made  available,  and 
there  being  no  necessity  for  the  flame  to  pass  up  the  chimney 
to  produce  draught,  as  in  the  case  of  the  reverberatory  fur- 
nace, which  requires  an  inordinate  supply  of  fuel  as  compared 
with  what  is  wanted  to  work  the  fan. 

M,  The  absolute  control  the  attendant  has  over  the  fur- 
nace, as  regards  the  temperature  and  the  simplicity  with 
which  it  can  be  worked.  Its  operations  in  this  respect  are, 
according  to  those  who  have  seen  it  at  work,  so  perfect  as  to 
be  as  precise  in  its  action  as  a  machine. 

An  apparently  new  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  conversion 
of  iron,  by  a  paper  read  by  Mr.  H.  Bessemer  at  the  meeting 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  advancement  of  science, 


Iron — Manufacture.  355 

held  at  Cheltenham  in  August,  1856.  In  this  paper  the 
author  announces  to  the  world  the  discovery  of  an  entirely 
new  system  of  operations  for  the  manufacture  of  malleable 
iron  and  steel.  The  crude  metal  is  converted,  by  one  simple 
process,  directly  as  it  comes  from  the  blast-furnace.  We  should 
detract  from  its  clearness  did  we  attempt  to  curtail  the  lucid 
description  in  which  Mr.  Bessemer  has  recommended  his  inven- 
tion to  the  manufacturers  and  the  public ;  we  therefore  give 
the  account  in  his  own  words  : 

Mr.  Bessemer  states  that  "  for  the  last  two  years  his  atten- 
tion has  been  almost  exclusively  directed  to  the  manufacture 
of  malleable  iron  and  steel,  in  which,  however,  he  had  made 
but  little  progress  until  within  the  last  eight  or  nine  months. 
The  constant  pulling  down  and  rebuilding  of  furnaces,  and 
the  toil  of  daily  experiments  .with  large  charges  of  iron,  had 
begun  to  exhaust  his  patience,  but  the  numerous  observations 
he  had  made  during  this  very  unpromising  period,  all  tended  to 
confirm  an  entirely  new  view  of  the  subject,  which  at  that 
time  forced  itself  upon  his  attention,  viz. — that  he  could  pro- 
duce a  much  more  intense  heat,  without  any  furnace  or  fuel, 
than  could  be  obtained  by  either  of  the  modifications  he  had 
uscil,  and  consequently,  that  he  should  not  only  avoid  the 
injurious  action  of  mineral  fuel  on  the  iron  under  operation, 
but  that  he  would,  at  the  same  time,  avoid  also  the  expense 
of  the  fuel.  Some  preliminary  trials  were  made  on  from 
10  lbs.  to  20  lbs.,  of  iron,  and  although  the  process  was 
fraught  with  considerable  difiiculty,  it  exhibited  such  unmis- 
takable signs  of  success,  as  to  induce  him  at  once  to  put  up 
an  apparatus  capable  of  converting  about  7  cwt.  of  crude 
pig-iron  into  malleable  iron  in  30  minutes.  With  such  masses 
of  metal  to  operate  on,  the  difiiculties  which  beset  the  small 
laboratory  experiments  of  10  lbs.  entirely  disappeared.  On 
this  new  field  of  inquiry,  he  set  out  with  the  assumption  that 
crude  iron  contains  about  5  per  cent,  of  carbon  ;  that  carbon 
cannot  exist  at  a  white  heat  in  the  presence  of  oxygen  with- 
out uniting  therewith,  and  producing  combustion ;  that  such 
combustion  would  proceed  with  a  rapidity  dependent  on  the 
amount  of  surface  of  carbon  exposed  ;  ■  and,  lastly,  that  the 
temperature  which  the  metal  would  acquire  would  also  be  de- 
pendent on  the  rapidity  with  which  the  oxygen  and  carbon 
were  made  to  combine,  and  consequently,  that  it  was  only  neces- 


856  Five  Black  Arts. 

sarj  to  bring  the  oxygen  and  carbon  together  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  a  vast  surface  should  be  exposed  to  their  mutual 
action,  in  order  to  produce  a  temperature  hitherto  unattaina- 
ble in  our  largest  furnaces.  With  a  view  of  testing  practi- 
cally this  theory,  he  constructed  a  cylindrical  vessel  of  three 
feet  in  diameter,  and  five  feet  in  height,  somewhat  like  an 
ordinary  cupola  furnace,  the  interior  of  which  was  lined  with 
fire-bricks,  and  at  about  two  inches  from  the  bottom  of  it  he 
inserted  five  tuyere  pipes,  the  nozzles  of  which  were  formed  of 
well-burnt  fire  clay,  the  orifice  of  each  tuyere  being  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  they  were  put  into  the 
brick  lining  from  the  outside,  so  as  to  admit  of  their  removal 
and  renewal  in  a  few  minutes,  when  they  were  worn  out.  At 
one  side  of  the  vessel,  about  half  way  up  from  the  bottom, 
there  was  a  hole  made  for  running  in  the  crude  metal,  and 
in  the  opposite  side  was  a  tap-hole,  stopped  with  loam,  by 
means  of  which  the  iron  was  run  out  at  the  end  of  the  pro- 
cess. In  practice,  this  converting  vessel  may  be  made  of 
any  convenient  size,  but  he  prefers  that  it  should  not  hold  less 
than  one  or  more  than  five  tons  of  fluid  iron  at  each  charge. 
The  vessel  should  be  placed  so  near  to  the  blast-furnace  as  to 
allow  the  iron  to  flow  along  a  gutter  into  it ;  a  small  blast- 
cylinder  is  required,  capable  of  compressing  air  to  about 
8  lbs.  or  10  lbs.  per  square  inch.  A  communication  having 
been  made  between  it  and  the  tuyeres  before  mentioned,  the 
converting  vessel  will  be  in  a  condition  to  commence  work; 
it  will,  however,  on  the  occasion  of  its  first  being  used,, after 
relining  with  fire-bricks,  be  necessary  to  make  a  fire  in  the 
interior  with  a  few  baskets  of  coke,  so  as  to  dry  the  brick- 
work and  heat  up  the  vessel  for  the  first  operation,  after 
which  the  fire  is  to  be  carefully  raked  out  at  the  tapping  hole, 
which  is  again  to  be  made  good  with  loam.  The  vessel  will 
then  be  in  readiness  to  commence  work,  and  may  be  so  con- 
tinued until  the  brick  lining,  in  the  course  of  time,  is  worn 
away,  and  a  new  lining  is  required.  The  tuyeres,  as  before 
stated,  were  situated  nearly  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
the  fluid  metal  therefore  rose  some  eighteen  inches  or  two 
feet  above  them.  It  was  therefore  necessary,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  metal  from  entering  the  tuyere  holes,  to  turn  on  the 
blast  before  allowing  the  fluid  crude  iron  to  run  into  the  ves- 
sel from  the  blast-furnace.     This  having  been  done,  and  the 


Iron — Manufacture.  357 

fluid  iron  run  in,  a  rapid  boiling  up  of  the  metal  was  heard 
going  on  within  the  vessel,  the  iron  being  tossed  violently 
about,  and  dashed  from  side  to  side,  shaking  the  vessel  by 
the  force  with  which  it  moved.  Flame,  accompanied  by  a 
few  bright  sparks,  immediately  issued  from  the  throat  of  the 
converting  vessel.  This  state  of  things  lasted  for  about  fif- 
teen or  twenty  minutes,  during  which  time  the  oxygen  in  the 
atmospheric  air  combined  with  the  carbon  contained  in  the 
iron,  producing  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  at  the  same  time  evolv- 
ing a  powerful  heat.  Now  as  this  heat  is  generated  in  the 
interior  of,  and  is  diflfusive  in  innumerable  fiery  bubbles 
throughout  the  entire  mass,  the  vessel  absorbs  the  greater 
part  of  it,  and  its  temperature  becomes  immensely  increased, 
and  by  the  expiration  of  the  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  before 
named,  that  part  of  the  carbon  which  appears  mechanically 
mixed  and  diffused  through  the  crude  iron  has  been  entirely 
consumed.  The  temperature,  however,  is  so  high  that  the 
chemically  combined  carbon  now  begins  to  separate  from  the 
metal,  as  is  at  once  indicated  by  an  immense  increase  in  the 
volume  of  flame  rushing  out  of  the  throat  of  the  vessel.  The 
metal  in  the  vessel  now  rises  several  inches  above  its  natural 
level,  and  a  light  frothy  slag  makes  its  appearance,  and  is 
thrown  out  in  large  foam-like  masses.  This  violent  eruption 
of  cinder  generally  lasts  about  five  or  six  minutes,  when  all 
further  appearance  of  it  ceases,  a  steady  and  powerful  flame 
replacing  the  shower  of  sparks  and  cinders  which  always  ac- 
companies the  boil.  The  rapid  union  of  carbon  and  oxygen 
which  thus  takes  place,  adds  still  further  to  the  temperature 
of  the  metal,  while  the  diminished  quantity  of  carbon  present 
allows  a  part  of  the  oxygen  to  combine  with  the  iron  which 
undergoes  a  combustion,  and  is  converted  into  an  oxide.  At 
the  excessive  temperature  that  the  metal  has  now  acquired, 
the  oxide,  as  soon  as  formed,  undergoes  fusion,  and  forms  a 
powerful  solvent  of  those  earthy  bases  that  are  associated  with 
the  iron.  The  violent  ebullition  which  is  going  on  mixes  most 
intimately  the  scoriae  and  metal,  every  part  of  which  is  thus 
brought  into  contact  with  the  fluid  oxide,  which  will  thus  wash 
and  cleanse  the  metal  most  thoroughly  from  the  silica  and 
other  earthy  bases,  which  are  combined  with  the  crude  iron, 
while  the  sulphur  and  other  volatile  matters,  which  cling  so 
tenaciously  to  iron  at  ordinary  temperatures,  are  driven  off, 


858  Five  Black  Arts. 

the  sulphur  combining  with  the  oxygen,  and  forms  sulphuric 
acid  gas.  The  loss  in  weight  of  crude  iron  during  its  conver- 
sion into  an  ingot  of  malleable  iron,  was  found,  on  a  mean  of 
four  experiments,  to  be  12J  per  cent.,  to  which  will  have  to  be 
added  the  loss  of  metal  in  the  finishing  rolls.  This  will  make 
the  entire  loss  probably  not  less  than  18  per  cent,  instead  of 
28  per  cent.,  which  is  the  loss  on  the  present  system.  A  large 
portion  of  this  metal  is,  however,  recoverable  by  treating  with 
carbonaceous  gases  the  rich  oxides  thrown  out  of  the  furnace 
during  the  boil.  These  slags  are  found  to  contain  innumerable 
small  grains  of  metallic  iron,  which  are  mechanically  held  in 
suspension  in  the  slags,  and  may  be  easily  recovered.  It  has 
already  been  stated  that  after  the  boil  has  taken  place,  a  steady 
and  powerful  flame  succeeds,  which  continues  without  any 
change  for  about  ten  minutes,  when  it  rapidly  falls  off.  As 
soon  as  this  diminution  is  apparent,  the  workman  knows  that 
the  process  is  completed,  and  that  the  crude  iron  has  been 
converted  into  pure  malleable  iron,  which  he  will  form  into 
ingots  of  any  suitable  size  and  shape  by  simply  opening  the 
tap-hole  of  the  converting  vessel,  and  allowing  the  fluid  mal- 
leable iron  to  flow  into  the  iron  ingot  moulds  placed  there  to 
receive  it.  The  masses  of  iron  thus  formed  will  be  perfectly 
free  from  any  admixture  of  cinder  oxide,  or  other  extraneous 
matters,  and  will  be  far  more  pure,  and  in  a  forwarder  state 
of  manufacture,  than  a  pile  formed  of  ordinary  puddle  bars. 
And  thus,  by  a  single  process,  requiring  no  manipulation  or 
particular  skill,  and  with  only  one  workman,  from  three  to 
five  tons  of  crude  iron  passes  into  the  condition  of  several 
piles  of  malleable  iron,  in  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  minutes, 
with  the  expenditure  of  about  one-third  part  the  blast  now 
used  in  a  finery  furnace  with  an  equal  charge  of  iron,  and  with 
the  consumption  of  no  other  fuel  than  is  contained  in  the 
crude  iron.  To  those  who  are  best  acquainted  with  the  nature 
of  fluid  iron  it  may  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  a  blast  of 
cold  air  forced  into  melted  crude  iron  is  capable  of  raising  its 
temperature  to  such  a  degree  as  to  retain  it  in  a  perfect  state 
of  fluidity,  after  it  has  lost  all  its  carbon,  and  is  in  the  condition 
of  malleable  iron,  which,  in  the  highest  heat  of  our  forges, 
only  becomes  a  pasty  mass.  But  such  is  the  excessive  tem- 
perature that  may  be  arrived  at,  with  a  properly  shaped  con- 
verting vessel,  and  a  judicious  distribution  of  the  blast,  that 


Iron — Manufacture.  359 

not  only  may  the  fluidity  of  the  metal  be  retained,  but  so 
much  surplus  heat  can  be  created  as  to  remelt  the  crop  ends, 
ingot,  runners,  and  other  scrap,  that  is  made  throughout  the 
process,  and  thus  bring  them,  without  labor  or  fuel,  into  in- 
gots of  a  quality  equal  to  the  rest  of  the  charge  of  new  metal. 
For  this  purpose  a  small  arched  chamber  is  formed  immediately 
over  the  throat  of  the  converting  vessel,  somewhat  like  the 
tunnel-head  of  the  blast-furnace.  This  chamber  has  two  or 
more  openings  in  the  side  of  it,  and  its  floor  is  made  to  slope 
downward  to  the  throat.  As  soon  as  a  charge  of  fluid  malleable 
iron  has  been  drawn  off  from  the  converting  vessel,  the  work- 
man will  take  the  scrap  intended  to  be  worked  into  the  next 
charge,  and  proceed  to  introduce  the  several  small  pieces  into 
the  small  chamber,  piling  them  up  round  the  opening  of  the 
throat.  When  this  is  done,  he  will  run  in  his  charge  of  crude 
metal,  and  again  commence  the  process.  By  the  time  the 
boil  commences,  the  bar  ends  or  other  scrap  will  have  ac- 
quired a  white  heat,  and  by  the  time  it  is  over,  most  of  them 
will  have  melted  and  run  down  into  the  charge.  Any  pieces, 
however,  that  remain,  may  then  be  pushed  in  by  the  work- 
man, and  by  the  time  the  process  is  completed,  they  will  all 
be  melted  and  intimately  combined  with  the  rest  of  the 
charge  ;  so  that  all  scrap  iron,  whether  cast  or  malleable,  may 
thus  be  used  up  without  any  loss  or  expense.  As  an  exam- 
ple of  the  power  that  iron  has  of  generating  heat  in  this  pro- 
cess, Mr.  Bessemer  mentions  that  when  trying  how  small  a 
set  of  tuyeres  could  be  used,  the  size  he  had  chosen  proved 
too  small,  and  after  blowing  into  the  metal  for  one  hour 
and  three-quarters,  he  could  not  get  up  heat  enough  with 
them  to  bring  on  the  boil.  The  experiment  was  therefore  dis- 
continued, during  which  time  two-thirds  of  the  metal  solidi- 
fied, and  the  rest  was  run  off.  A  larger  set  of  tuyere  pipes 
were  then  put  in,  and  a  fresh  charge  of  fluid  iron  run  into 
the  vessel,  which  had  the  effect  of  entirely  remelting  the  for- 
mer charge  ;  and  when  the  whole  was  tapped  out  it  exhibited, 
as  usual,  that  intense  and  dazzling  brightness  peculiar  to  the 
electric  light. 

"  To  persons  "conversant  with  the  manufacture  of  iron,  it  will 
be  at  once  apparent  that  the  ingots  of  malleable  metal  which 
are  produced  by  this  process,  will  have  no  hard  or  steely  parts, 
such  as  are  found  in  puddled  iron,  requiring  a  great  amount 


360  Five  Black  Arts. 

of  rolling  to  blend  them  with  the  general  mass,  nor  will  such 
ingots  require  an  excess  of  rolling  to  expel  the  cinder  from 
the  interior  of  the  mass,  since  none  can  exist  in  the  ingot, 
which  is  pure  and  perfectly  homogeneous  throughout,  and 
hence  requires  only  as  much  rolling  as  is  necessary  for  the 
development  of  fiber;  it  therefore  follows  that  instead  of 
forming  a  merchant  bar  or  rail  by  the  union  of  a  number  of 
separate  pieces  welded  together,  it  will  be  far  more  simple 
and  less  expensive,  to  make  several  bars  or  rails  from  a  single 
ingot ;  doubtless  this  would  have  been  done  long  ago  had  not 
the  whole  process  been  limited  by  the  size  of  the  ball  which 
the  puddler  could  make. 

"  The  facility  which  the  new  process  affords,  of  making 
large  masses,  will  enable  the  manufacturer  to  produce  bars 
that,  on  the  old  mode  of  working,  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  ; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  it  admits  of  the  use  of  some  power- 
ful machinery,  whereby  a  great  deal  of  labor  will  be  saved, 
and  the  process  be  greatly  expedited.  Mr.  Bessemer  merely 
mentions  this  in  passing,  without  entering  into  details,  as  the 
patents  he  has  obtained  for  improvements  in  this  branch  of 
the  manufacture  are  not  yet  specified.  He  next  points  out 
the  perfectly  homogeneous  character  of  cast-steel — its  free- 
dom from  sand  cracks  and  flaws — and  its  greater  cohesive 
force  and  elasticity,  compared  with  the  blister  steel  from 
which  it  is  made,  qualities  which  it  derives  solely  from  its 
fusion  and  formation  into  ingots — all  of  which  properties 
malleable  iron  acquires  in  like  manner,  by  its  fusion' and  for- 
mation into  ingots  in  the  new  process'.  Nor  must  it  be  for- 
gotten that  no  amount  of  rolling  will  give  to  blistered  steel 
(although  formed  of  rolled  bars)  the  same  homogeneous  char- 
acter that  cast-steel  acquires,  by  a  mere  extension  of  the  in- 
got to  some  ten  or  twelve  times  its  original  length. 

"  One  of  the  most  important  facts  connected  with  the  new 
system  of  manufacturing  malleable  iron  is,  that  all  the  iron 
so  produced  will  be  of  the  quality  known  as  charcoal  iron, 
not  that  any  charcoal  is  used  in  its  manufacture,  but  because 
the  whole  of  the  processes  following  the  smelting  of  it,  are 
conducted  entirely  without  contact  with,  or  the  use  of  any 
mineral  fuel ;  the  iron  resulting  therefrom  will,  in  consequence, 
be  perfectly  free  from  those  injurious  properties  which  that 
description  of  fuel  never  fails  to  impart  to  iron  that  is  brought 


IRON.  ] 


[  Pl^TE   3. 


IRON.  ] 


[  Plate  4. 


Iron — Manufacture.  361 

under  its  influence.  At  the  same  time,  this  system  of  manu- 
facturing malleable  iron  offers  extraordinary  facility  for  mak- 
ing large  shafts,  cranks,  and  other  heavy  masses  ;  it  will  be 
obvious  that  any  weight  of  metal  that  can  be  founded  in  or- 
dinary cast-iron,  by  the  means  at  present  at  our  disposal,  may 
also  be  founded  in  molten  malleable  iron,  and  be  wrought 
into  the  forms  and  shapes  required,  provided  that  we  increase 
the  size  and  power  of  our  machinery  to  the  extent  necessary 
to  deal  with  such  large  masses  of  metal.  A  few  minutes'  re- 
flection will  show  the  great  anomaly  presented  by  the  scale 
on  which  the  processes  of  iron-making  are  at  present  carried 
on.  The  little  furnaces  originally  used  for  smelting  ore  have, 
from  time  to  time,  increased  in  size,  until  they  have  assumed 
colossal  proportions,  and  are  made  to  operate  on  200  or  300 
tons  of  material  at  a  time,  giving  out  10  tons  of  fluid  metal 
at  a  single  run.  The  manufacturer  has  thus  gone  on  increas- 
ing the  size  of  his  smelting  furnaces,  adapting  to  their  use 
the  blast  apparatus  of  the  requisite  proportions,  and  has  by 
this  means  lessened  the  cost  of  production,  in  every  way  in- 
suring a  cheapness  and  uniformity  of  production,  that  could 
never  have  been  secured  by  a  multiplicity  of  small  furnaces. 
While  the  manufacturer  has  shown  himself  fully  alive  to  these 
advantages,  he  has  still  been  under  the  necessity  of  leaving 
the  succeeding  operations  to  be  carried  out  on  a  scale  wholly 
at  variance  with  the  principles  he  has  found  so  advantageous 
in  the  smelting  department.  It  is  true  that,  hitherto,  no 
better  method  was  known  than  the  puddling  process,  in  which 
from  4  cwt.  to  5  cwt.  of  iron  is  all  that  can  be  operated  upon 
at  a  time,  and  even  this  small  quantity  is  divided  into  home- 
opathic doses  of  70  lbs.  or  80  lbs.,  each  of  which  is  moulded 
and  fashioned  by  human  labor,  carefully  watched  and  tended 
in  the  furnace,  and  removed  therefrom,  one  at  a  time,  to  be 
carefully  manipulated  and  squeezed  into  form.  The  vast  ex- 
tent of  the  manufacture,  and  the  gigantic  scale  on  which  the 
early  stages  of  its  progress  is  conducted,  it  is  astonishing  that 
no  effort  should  have  been  made  to  raise  the  after  processes 
somewhat  nearer  to  a  level  commensurate  with  the  preceding 
ones,  and  thus  rescue  the  trade  from  the  trammels  which 
have  so  long  surrounded  it.  Mr.  Bessemer  then  adverts  to 
another  important  feature  of  the  new  process,  the  produc- 
tion of  what  he  calls  semi-steel.     At  the  stage  of  the  pro- 


362  Five  Black  Arts. 

cess  immediately  following  the  boil,  the  whole  of  the  crude 
iron  has  passed  into  the  condition  of  cast-steel  of  ordinary 
quality  ;  by  the  continuation  of  the  process  the  steel  so  pro- 
duced gradually  loses  its  small  remaining  portion  of  carbon,  and 
passes  successively  from  hard  to  soft  steel,  and  from  softened 
steel  to  steely  iron,  and  eventually  to  very  soft  iron  ;  hence,  at 
a  certain  period  of  the  process,  any  quality  may  be  obtained  ; 
there  is  one  in  particular,  which,  by  way  of  distinction,  he 
calls  semi-steel,  being  in  hardness  about  midway  between  or- 
dinary cast-steel  and  soft  malleable  iron*.  This  metal  possess- 
es the  advantage  of  much  greater  tensile  strength  than  soft 
iron  ;  it  is  also  more  elastic,  and  does  not  readily  take  a  per- 
manent set,  while  it  is  much  harder,  and  is  not  worn  or  in- 
dented so  easily  as  soft  iron.  At  the  same  time  it  is  not  so 
brittle  or  hard  to  work  as  ordinary  cast-steel.  These  quali- 
ties render  it  eminently  well  adapted  to  purposes  where  light- 
ness and  strength  are  especially  required,  or  where  there  is 
much  wear,  as  in  the  case  of  railway  bars,  which,  from  their 
softness  and  lamellar  texture,  soon  become  destroyed.  The 
cost  of  semi-steel  will  be  a  fraction  less  than  iron,  because 
the  loss  of  metal  that  takes  place  by  oxidation  in  the  convert- 
ing vessel  is  about  2J  per  cent,  less  than  it  is  with  iron,  but 
as  it  is  a  little  more  difficult  to  roll,  its  cost  per  ton  may 
fairly  be  considered  to  be  the  same  as  iron,  but  as  its  tensile 
strength  is  some  thirty  or  forty  per  cent,  greater  than  bar 
iron,  it  follows  that  for  most  purposes  a  much  less  weight  of 
metal  may  be  used,  so  that  taken  in  that  way  the  semi-steel 
will  form  a  much  cheaper  metal  than  any  we  are  at  present 
acquainted  with. 

"  In  conclusion,  Mr.  Bessemer  observes  that  the  facts  he 
has  discovered  have  not  been  elicited  by  mere  laboratory  ex- 
periments, but  have  been  the  result  of  operations  on  a  scale 
nearly  twice  as  great  as  is  pursued  in  the  largest  iron-works, 
the  experimental  apparatus  converting  7  cwt.  in  thirty  min- 
utes, while  the  ordinary  puddling  furnace  makes  only  4 J  cwt. 
in  two  hours,  which  is  made  into  six  separate  balls  ;  while  the 
ingots  or  blooms  are  smooth,  even  prisms  ten  inches  square 
by  thirty  inches  in  length,  weighing  about  as  much  as  ten 
ordinary  puddle  balls." 


Iron — Machinery  of  Manufacture.  363 


MACHINERY  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE. 

The  mechanical  operations  connected  with  the  manufacture 
of  wrought  iron  consist  of  shingling,  hammering,  rolling, 
etc.,  to  which  we  may  add  the  forging  of  "  wses,"  that  is,  the 
forging  of  those  peculiar  forms  so  extensively  in  demand  for 
steam-engines,  railway  carriages,  and  other  works,  which  has 
lately  become  a  large  and  important  branch  of  trade. 

In  tracing  the  processes  in  the  manufacture  of  wrought 
iron  bars  and  plat-es,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  enlarge  on 
those  practices  which  have  been  superseded  by  more  modern  and 
improved  machinery.  Suffice  it  then  to  observe,  that  formerly 
the  puddled  balls  were  shingled  or  fashioned  into  oblong  slabs 
or  blooms  by  the  blows  of  a  heavy  forge  hammer ;  during 
this  operation,  the  scoriae  and  impurities  which  adhered  to 
the  balls  were  separated  from  the  blooms  by  the  force  of  im- 
pact, and  then  by  a  series  of  blows  the  iron  was  rendered 
malleable,  dense,  and  compact.  The  blooms  were  then  passed 
through  a  series  of  grooved  iron  rollers,  which  reduced  them 
to  the  form  of  long,  slender  iron  bars.  These  were  cut  up 
and  piled  regularly  together  or  fagotted,  and  brought  to  a 
welding  heat  in  the  heating  or  balling  furnace,  when  they  were 
again  passed  several  times  through  grooved  rollers,  and  by 
this  latter  process  were  made  into  bars  or  plates  ready  for 
the  shears. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  a  clear  conception  of  the  mechanical 
operations  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  iron,  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  describe  more  at  length  the  processes  as  at  pres- 
ent practiced,  with  the  improved  and  powerful  machinery  now 
employed ;  and  as  much  depends  upon  the  application  of  the 
motive  power,  the  steam-engine  claims  the  first  notice.  Un- 
til of  late  years,  the  vertical  steam-engine  was  invariably 
used  for  giving  motion  to  the  forge  hammer  and  rolling  mill, 
which  were  placed  on  one  side  of  the  fly-wheel  and  the  crank 
on  the  other ;  but  the  high-pressure,  non-condensing  engine 
is  found  to  be  decidedly  preferable,  as  the  waste  heat  pass- 
ing off  with  the  products  of  combustion  from  the  puddling 
and  heating  furnaces,  is  quite  sufficient  to  raise  the  steam 
for  working  the  rolls  and  one  of  Brown's  bloom  queezers, 
as  shown  by  fig.  5. 


364  Five  Black  Akts. 

In  this  arrangement  the  cylinder  A  (figs.  5,  6,  7)  is  placed 
horizontally,  and  is  supplied  with  steam  from  boilers  near  the 
puddhng  furnaces.  Tne  piston  and  slides  B,  and  connecting 
rod  C,  give  motion  to  the  crank  shaft  D,  on  which  is  fixed  a 
heavy  fly-wheel  E.  The  puddling  rolls  F  are  driven  direct 
from  the  end  of  the  fly-wheel  shaft,  and  the  bloom  squeezers  H, 
by  a  train  of  spur  wheels  GG.  Under  the  lower  rolls  of  the 
squeezers  a  Jacob's  ladder  or  elevator  I  is  fixed,  for  raising  the 
block  which  has  been  deprived  of  its  impurities,  and  reduced  to 
an  oblong  shape  by  passing  between  the  rollers  of  the  squeezer. 
The  block,  on  leaving  the  rollers,  is  carried  in  front  of  one  of 
the  projecting  divisions  of  the  ladder  and  thrown  on  to  the 
platform  in  front  of  the  rolls ;  the  workman  then  seizes  it 
with  a  pair  of  tongs  and  forces  it  into  the  largest  groove  in 
the  rolls ;  it  is  then  passed  in  succession  through  the  other 
grooves  till  it  attains  the  required  form  of  the  bar. 

The  drawings  of  Brown's  bloom  squeezers,  figs.  8,  9,  and 
10,  will  sufficiently  explain  how  the  heated  ball  of  puddled 
iron,  K,  thrown  on  the  top,  is  gradually  compressed  between 
the  revolving  rollers  as  it  descends  and  at  last  emerges  at 
the  bottom,  where  it  is  thrown  on  to  the  movable  "  Jacob's 
ladder,"  by  which  it  is  elevated  to  the  rolls,  as  already  de- 
scribed. This  machine  eSects  a  considerable  saving  of  time  ; 
•will  do  the  work  of  12  or  14  furnaces,  and  may  be  kept 
constantly  going  as  a  feeder  to  one  or  two  pairs  of  rolls. 
There  are  two  distinct  forms  of  this  machine,  one  as  shown 
in  fig.  8,  where  the  bloom  receives  only  two  compressions  ; 
and  the  other,  which  is  much  more  effective,  where  it  is 
squeezed  four  times  before  it  leaves  the  rolls  and  falls  upon 
the  Jacob's  ladder,  as  exhibited  in  figs.  9  and  10. 

There  are  two  other  machines  for  preparing  the  blooms 
by  compression.  One  is  a  table  firmly  imbedded  in  masonry, 
as  shown  at  AA,  in  fig.  11,  with  a  ledge  rising  up  from  it  to 
a  height  of  about  two  feet,  so  as  to  form  an  open  box.  Within 
this  is  a  revolving  box  C,  of  a  similar  character,  much  smaller 
than  the  last  and  placed  eccentrically  in  regard  to  it.  The 
ball  or  bloom  D  is  placed  between  the  innermost  revolving 
box  C  and  the  outer  case  AA,  where  the  space  between  them 
is  greatest,  and  is  carried  round  till  it  emerges  at  E,  com- 
pressed and  fit  for  the  rolls. 

Another  instrument,  fig.  12,  used  for  the  same  purpose,  acts 


IRON.  ] 


[  Plate  5. 


IRON.  ] 


[  Plate  6. 


A>//. 


rio  13 


Iron — Machinery  of  Manufacture.  365 

as  a  pair  of  pliers,  and  squeezes  the  iron  between  two  flat 
blades  AA.  This  machine  is  called  the  Alligator,  and  is 
probably  more  effective  than  the  horizontal  machine,  but  it 
requires  an  attendant  to  keep  the  bloom  rolling  about  under 
the  jaws  AA,  and  is,  in  other  respects,  inferior  to  Brown's 
patent  squeezer. 

We  have  stated  that  the  horizontal,  non-condensing  steam- 
engine,  from  its  compact  form  and  convenience  of  handling, 
is  admirably  adapted  for  giving  motion  to  the  machinery  of 
iron-works.  For  this  object,  it  is  superior  to  the  beam-engine, 
as  its  speed  can  be  regulated  with  the  greatest  nicety,  by 
opening  or  shutting  the  valve,  so  as  to  suit  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  manufacture,  under  the  varied  conditions  of  the 
pressure  of  the  steam,  and  the  power  required  for  rolling 
heavy  plates  and  bars,  or  those  of  a  lighter  description.  It 
is  also  much  cheaper  in  its  original  cost,  and  all  its  parts 
being  fixed  upon  a  large  bed-plate,  require  a  comparatively 
small  amount  of  masonry  to  render  it  solid  and  secure. 

In  regard  to  the  manufacture  of  the  rollers  for  the  puddling, 
boiler-plate,  and  merchant  train,  the  greatest  care  must  be 
observed  in  the  selection  of  the  iron  and  the  mode  of  casting. 
In  Staffordshire  there  are  roller-makers,  but  in  general  the 
manufacturer  casts  his  own,  and  as  much  depends  upon  the 
metal,  the  strongest  qualities  are  carefully  selected  and  mixed 
with  Welsh  No.  1  or  No.  2,  and  Staffordshire  No.  2.  This 
latter  description  of  iron,  when  duly  prepared,  exhibits  great 
tenacity,  and  is  well  adapted,  either  in  the  first  or  second 
melting,  for  such  a  purpose.  In  casting,  the  moulds  are  pre- 
pared in  loam,  and  when  dry  are  sunk  vertically  into  the  pit 
to  a  depth  of  about  five  feet  below  the  floor.  The  moulding 
box  is  surrounded  by  sand  firmly  consolidated  by  beaters,  and 
a  second  mould  or  head  is  placed  above  it,  which  receives  an 
additional  quantity  of  iron  to  supply  the  space  left  by  shrink- 
ing, and  keep  the  roll  under  pressure  until  it  solidifies,  and 
thus  secures  a  great  uniformity  and  density  in  the  roller.  The 
metal  is  run  into  the  mould  direct  from  the  air  furnace  by  chan- 
nels cut  in  the  sand,  and  immediately  the  mould  is  filled,  the 
w^orkman  agitates  the  metal  with  a  rod,  in  order  to  consolidate 
the  mass  and  get  rid  of  any  air  or  gas  which  may  be  confined 
in  the  metal.  This  stirring  with  iron  rods  is  continued  till  the 
metal  cools  to  a  semi-fluid  state,  when  it  is  covered  up  and  al- 


366  Five  Black  Arts. 

lowed  slowly  to  cool  and  crystallize.  This  slow  rate  of  cooling  is 
necessary  to  favor  a  uniform  degree  of  contraction,  as  the  exte- 
rior closes  up  like  a  series  of  hoops  round  the  core  of  the  cast- 
ing, which  is  always  the  most  porous  and  the  last  to  cool.  In 
every  casting  of  this  kind  it  is  essential  to  avoid  unequal  con- 
traction, and  this  cannot  be  accomplished  unless  time  is  given 
for  the  arrangement  of  the  particles  by  a  slow  process  of  crys- 
tallization. Rollers  for  boiler-plates  and  thin  sheet  iron  are 
difficult  to  cast  sound  on  account  of  their  large  size.  They  are 
subjected  to  very  great  strain,  and  require  to  be  cast  from  the 
most  tenacious  metals.     The  bearings  or  neck  should  be  en- 

larged,  or  turned  to  the  shape  shown 

i-rf^  ~U     at   AA,  and   the  cylindrical  part  B 

n_  "^  t       should   be  slightly  concave,  because, 

when  the  slab  is  first  passed  through 
the  rollers,  it  comes  in  contact  with  a  small  portion  only  of  the 
revolving  surface.  The  central  parts  of  the  roller  thus  be- 
come highly  heated,  whilst  their  extremities  are  perfectly  cool ; 
the  consequence  is,  that  the  expansion  of  the  roller  is  great- 
est in  the  middle,  and  unless  this  be  provided  for  by  a  con- 
cavity in  the  barrel,  the  plates  become  buckled,  that  is,  both 
warped  and  uneven  in  thickness,  and  consequently,  imperfect 
and  unfit  for  the  purposes  of  boiler  making.  Bar  rolls  are 
generally  cast  in  chill,  and  great  care  is  required  to  prevent 
the  chill  penetrating  too  deep  so  as  to  injure  the  tenacity  of 
the  metal  and  render  it  brittle. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  rolling  mills  used  in  the  iron 
manufacture,  and  they  vary  considerably  in  their  dimensions 
according  to  the  work  they  have  to  perform.  The  first,  through 
which  the  puddled  iron  is  passed,  we  have  already  described 
as  puddling  rolls.  There  are  others  for  roughing  down  which 
vary  from  4  to  5  feet  long,  and  are  about  18  inches  diameter ; 
those  for  merchant  bars,  about  2  feet  6  inches  to  3  feet  long 
and  18  inches  in  diameter,  are  in  constant  use.  The  boiler-plate 
and  black  sheet-iron  rolls  are  generally  of  large  dimensions ; 
some  of  them  for  large  plates  are  upward  of  6  feet  long  and 
18  to  21  inches  in  diameter;  these  require  a  powerful  engine 
and  the  momentum  of  a  large  fly-wheel  to  carry  the  plate 
through  the  rollers,  and  not  unfrequently  when  thin  wide 
plates  have  to  be  rolled,  the  two  combined  prove  unequal  to 
the  task,  and  the  result  is,  the  plates  cool  and  stick  fast  in  the 


Iron — Machinery  of  Manufacture.  367 

middle.  The  greatest  care  is  necessary  in  rolling  plates  of 
this  kind,  as  any  neglect  of  the  speed  of  the  engine  or  the 
setting  of  the  rolls  results  in  the  breakage  of  the  latter,  or 
bringing  the  former  to  a  complete  stand. 

The  speed  of  the  different  kinr's  of  rolling  mills  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  work  they  have  to  perform.  Those  for  mer- 
chant bars  make  from  60  to  70  revolutions  a  minute,  whilst 
those  of  large  size  for  boiler-plates  are  reduced  to  28  or 
30.  Others,  such  as  the  finishing  and  guide  rollers,  run 
at  from  120  to  400  revolutions  a  minute.  In  Stafford 
shire,  where  some  of  the  finer  kinds  of  iron  are  prepared  for 
the  manufacture  of  wire,  the  rollers  are  generally  made  of 
cast-steel,  and  run  at  a  high  velocity  ;  such  is  the  ductility  of 
this  description  of  iron,  that  in  passing  through  a  succession  of 
rollers,  it  will  have  elongated  to  10  or  15  times  its  original 
length,  and  when  completely  finished,  will  have  assumed  the 
form  of  a  strong  wire  f  to  i  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  40 
to  50  feet  in  length. 

A  high  temperature  is  an  indispensable  condition  of  success 
in  rolling.  The  experience  of  the  workman  enables  him  to 
judge,  from  the  appearance  of  the  furnace,  when  the  pile  is 
at  a  welding  heat,  so  that  when  compressed  in  the  rolls  the 
particles  will  unite.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  fine 
polish  or  skin  to  the  iron  as  it*  leaves  the  rolls,  but  this  can  only 
be  done  when  the  iron  cools  down  to  a  dark-red  color,  and 
by  the  practiced  eye  of  an  intelligent  workman. 

The  above  operations  would  still  be  incomplete  unless  the 
ironmaster  had  means  of  cutting  the  bars  and  plates  to  any 
required  size  or  shape.  The  machinery  for  this  purpose  has 
of  late  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  both  in 
regard  to  power  and  precision. 

The  circular  saw  has  been  successfully  applied  for  squaring 
and  cutting  the  larger  descriptions  of  bars,  and  does  its  work, 
particularly  in  railway  bars,  with  almost  mathematical  pre- 
cision. This  machine  consists  of  a  cast-iron  frame  or  bed 
AA,  fig.  13,  bolted  down  to  a  solid  foundation,  on  the  ends 
of  which  slide  two  frames  BB  to  support  the  bar  to  be  cut. . 
The  two  circular  saws  or  cutters  CC  are  driven  by  straps  pass- 
ing over  the  pulleys  DE,  and  rotate  at  the  rate  of  800  to 
1000  revolutions  per  minute.  The  machine  is  set  in  motion 
by  transferring  the  straps  from  the  loose  pulley  D  to  the  fast 


Five  Black  Arts. 

pulley  E,  and  as  soon  as  the  required  speed  is  attained,  the 
frame  BB  is  carried  forward,  and  the  bar  FF  along  with  it, 
by  a  lever  G  or  eccentric  motion,  till  the  bar  is  cut  through. 
The  rate  of  cutting  or  pressure  upon  the  saws  may  be  regu- 
lated either  by  hand  or  weight;  care  must,  however,  be  taken 
not  to  allow  the  saws  to  become  too  hot,  and  this  is  provided 
against  by  running  them  in  a  trough  of  water.  By  this  pro- 
cess it  is  evident  that  the  bar  must  always  be  cut  square  at 
the  ends  and  correctly  to  the  same  length. 

A  great  variety  of  shears  are  used  for  cutting  iron,  some 
driven  by  cams  or  eccentrics,  and  some  by  connecting-rods 
and  a  crank  on  the  revolving  shaft.  In  large  iron-works  it 
is  necessary  to  have  two  or  three  kinds,  some  for  cutting  up 
scrap  iron  and  bars  for  piling,  and  others  for  boiler-plates. 
Of  the  first  we  may  notice  two,  one  shown  in  fig.  14,  cuts  on 
both  sides  at  AA,  and  is  driven  by  a  crank  and  connecting- 
rod  B.  This  machine  is  chiefly  used  for  cutting  puddled  bars 
from  the  puddling  rolls,  or  any  work  required  for  shingling. 
The  next  machine,  fig.  15,  receives  motion  in  the  same  man- 
ner, and  also  cuts  on  both  sides,  the  cutters  being  fixed  on 
the  lever  and  moving  with  it.  This  is  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose as  the  last,  and  likewise  for  cutting  scrap  iron.  These 
machines  are  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron, 
and  before  the  introduction  of  the  plate  shears,  they  were 
used,  -with  some  modifications,  to  cut  boiler-plates,  but  the 
work  was  very  imperfectly  executed. 

The  demand  for  plates  of  large  dimensions  and  greatly  in- 
creased weight,  such  as  those  for  the  front  and  tube  plates  of 
locomotive  and  marine  boilers,  and  those  for  tubular  and 
plate  bridges,  created  great  difficulties,  not  only  in  piling, 
heating,  and  rolling,  but  also  in  cutting  the  plates  accurately 
to  the  required  size.  To  meet  these  demands,  and  more 
particularly  for  the  manufacture  of  the  large  plates  employed 
in  the  cellular  top  of  the  Britannia  and  Conway  tubular 
bridges,  Messrs.  G.  B.  Thorneycroft  and  Co.  constructed  a 
large  shearing  machine  which  cut  upward  of  10  feet  at  one 
stroke.  These  shears  have  now  come  into  general  use,  and 
are  of  great  importance,  on  account  of  the  accuracy  wdth 
which  they  cut  plates  of  large  dimensions,  square  and  even. 
Figs.  16  and  17  represent  this  machine ;  aaa  is  the  stand- 
ard and  table  on  which  the  plate  is  fixed.     This  table  slides 


IRON.  ] 


[  Plate  7. 


IRON.  ] 


[  Plate  8. 


Iron — Machinery  of  Manufacture.  369 

forward  at  right  angles  to  the  shears  or  cutters  AAA* A*. 
The  top  cutter  descending  by  the  action  of  three  eccentrics 
ccc,  which  press  upon  the  top  of  the  frame  B  as  it  revolves, 
and  force  it  down,  and  by  one  stroke,  the  knife  AA  cuts  through 
the  whole  length  of  the  plate,  perfectly  clean,  and  straight. 
The  plate  is  then  reversed,  the  newly  cut  edge  being  held 
against  the  slopes,  and  the  sliding  frame  again  moved  forward 
to  the  required  width  of  the  plate,  when  another  stroke  cuts 
the  other  side  as  before.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  plates 
are  cut  is  another  advantage  of  this  machine,  as  great  as  the 
precision  of  its  cut,  and  when  the  immense  quantity  of  plates 
daily  produced  at  Messrs.  Thorney croft  and  Co.'s  works  are 
considered,  its  importance  becomes  evident. 

At  the  Paris  Universal  Exhibition  (1855),  a  plate-cutting 
machine  was  exhibited,  from  the  United  States,  which  ap- 
pears to  effect  the  same  operation  as  Messrs.  Thorneycroft 
and  Co.'s.  It  consists  of  a  strong  cast-iron  frame,  nine  or 
ten  feet  wide,  having  inserted  along  its  face  a  steel  plate,  on 
which  the  iron  to  be  cut  rests  and  is  held  firmly  by  a  faller, 
which  descends  on  the  upper  side  of  the  plate.  On  the  same 
side  of  the  frame  a  revolving  steel  cutter,  about  nine  inches 
in  diameter,  traverses  the  whole  length  of  the  frame,  and  in 
its  passage  cuts  the  plate,  by  compression,  in  a  perfectly 
straight  line,  corresponding  with  the  steel  edge  below.  Cut- 
ting and  shaving  plates  by  a  revolving  disc  has  been  long  in 
use,  but  the  traversing  motion  in  this  machine  is  certainly 
new,  and  its  application  very  creditable  to  the  ingenuity  of 
the  inventor. 

Having  thus  traced  the  processes  for  the  conversion  of  crude 
into  malleable  iron,  and  the  machinery  employed,  it  only  re- 
mains to  give  a  general  summary  of  the  whole.  As  regards 
the  arrangement  of  large  iron-works,  the  general  principle 
should  be  for  the  machinery  to  be  classed  and  fixed  in  the 
order  of  the  different  processes,  so  that  the  products  of  one 
machine  should  pass  at  once  to  the  next,  and,  in  fact,  the 
crude  iron  should  be  received  at  one  end,  and  having  passed 
through  all  the  processes,  delivered  at  the  other  in  the  man- 
ufactured state. 

The  crude  iron  from  the  smelting  furnace  is  either  refined 
and  puddled,  or  subjected  to  the  boiling  process,  to  get  rid  of 
the  combined  carbon  and  render  the  iron  malleable ;  it  is  then 
24 


370  Five  Black  Arts. 

shingled  by  the  forge  hammer,  by  the  "  alligator,"  by  Brown's 
squeezer,  or  by  the  other  machines  which  have  been  invented 
for  this  purpose.  It  is  then  at  once  passed  through  the  pud- 
dling rolls,  where  it  is  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  flat  bar,  and 
is  then  cut  into  convenient  lengths  by  the  shears.  These 
pieces  are  again  piled  or  faggoted  together  into  convenient 
heaps  and  re-heated  in  the  furnace.  As  soon  as  a  faggot 
thus  prepared  has  been  heated  to  the  welding  temperature, 
it  is  passed  through  the  roughing  rolls  to  reduce  it  to  the 
form  of  a  bar,  and  then  through  the  finishing  rolls,  where  the 
required  form  and  size  is  given  to  it,  either  round  or  square 
bars,  etc.  These  are  straightened  and  cut  to  the  required 
sizes,  and  are  then  ready  for  delivery.  In  most  large  works 
all  these  operations  are  carried  on  simultaneously  with  the 
smelting  process,  and  in  some  with  extensive  mining  opera- 
tions for  procuring  the  coal,  ore,  and  limestone  required  to 
supply  a  production  of  several  thousand  tons  of  manufactured 
iron  per  month. 

THE  FORGE. 

The  forging  of  iron  has  entered,  of  late  years,  so  largely 
into  the  constructive  arts,  that  the  manufactures,  however 
perfect  in  the  rolling-mill,  would  be  imperfect  indeed  without 
the  forge.  To  the  discussion  of  this  part  of  the  subject  there 
are  many  inducements,  and  we  cannot  but  wonder  at  the 
many  devices,  and  the  numerous  contrivances  which  present 
themselves  for  the  attainment  of  the  operations  of  the  forge. 
In  effecting  these  objects,  Mr.  Nasmyth's  steam-hammer  is 
evidently  the  most  effective,  and  to  that  instrument  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  formation  and  welding  of  iron  upon  a  scale 
previously  unknown  to  the  workers  in  that  metal. 

Mr.  Nasmyth  took  out  his  patent  lor  this  invention  in  1833 ; 
and  from  that  time  up  to  the  present,  it  has  maintained  its 
ground  against  every  innovation,  and  has  performed  an  im- 
portant duty  in  almost  every  well-regulated  work  in  Europe. 
It  consists  of  an  inverted  cylinder  D,  figs.  18.  and  19, 
through  which  the  piston-rod  E  passes,  attached  to  the  ham- 
mer-blade F  by  means  of  bars  and  cross -key  h.  which  press 
upon  an  elastic  packing,  to  soften  the  blow  of  the  hammer, 
which  in  heavy  forgings  and  heavy  blows,  operates  severely 


Iron — The  Forge.  371 

upon  the  piston-rod.  The  hammer-block  FF  is  guided  in  its 
vertical  descent  by  two  planed  guides  or  projections,  extend- 
ing the  length  of  the  side-standards  AA,  between  which  the 
hammer-block  slides.  The  attendant  gives  motion  to  the  ham- 
mer bj  admitting  steam  from  the  boiler  to  act  upon  the  under 
side  of  the  piston,  bj  moving  the  regulator  I  by  the  handle 
d.  The  length  of  stroke  is  regulated  by  increasing  or  dimin- 
ishing the  distance  between  the  cam  N  and  the  valve  lever  0 
0,  by  turning  the  screws  P  and  U  by  the  bevil  wheels  qq. 
The  lever  0  o  operates  by  the  cam  N  coming  in  contact  with 
the  roller  o.  As  soon  as  this  contact  takes  place,  the  further 
admission  of  steam  is  not  only  arrested,  but  its  escape  is  at 
the  same  time  eifected,  and  the  hammer,  left  unsupported, 
descends  by  its  gravity  upon  the  work  on  the  anvil  with  an 
energy  due  to  the  height  of  the  fall.  From  this  description, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  movement  of  the  roller  o  causes  the 
shoulder  of  the  rod  P  to  get  under  the  point  of  the  trigger  catch 
U  ;  the  valve  is  by  these  means  kept  closed  till  the  whole  force 
of  the  blow  is  struck.  The  instant  the  operation  is  effected, 
the  concussion  of  the  hammer  causes  the  latch  X  to  knock  off 
the  point  of  the  trigger  from  the  shoulder  on  the  valve-rod  P, 
by  means  of  the  bent  lever  %  v,  and  the  instant  this  is  accom- 
plished, the  valve  is  re-opened  to  admit  the  steam  below  the 
piston,  by  the  pressure  of  steam  on  the  upper  side  of  the  small 
piston  in  the  cylinder  M,  forcing  down  the  valve  rod,  which,  in 
this  respect,  is  the  active  agent  for  opening  the  valve. 

To  arrest  the  motion  of  the  hammer,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  shut  the  steam-valve ;  during  the  process  of  forging,  it  is, 
however,  desirable  to  give  time  between  the  blows,  to  enable 
the  workman  to  turn  and  shift  his  work  on  the  anvil ;  and  to 
effect  this  reduced  motion,  the  trigger  U  is  held  back  from  the 
shoulder  of  the  valve-rod  P,  by  the  handle  y,  which  at  the 
same  instant  opens  the  valve  in  the  case  J,  and  thus  the  ac- 
tion of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  D  retards  the  downward 
motion  of  the  hammer.  The  result  of  these  changes  is  an 
easy  descent  of  the  hammer,  which  vibrates  up  and  down 
without  touching  the  anvil,  but  ready  for  blows  of  any  se- 
verity the  instant  the  trigger  is  elevated  above  the  shoulder  of 
the  valve  lever  P.  From  this  description,  it  will  appear  evi- 
dent that  Mr.  Nasmy th's  invention  is  one  of  the  most  important 
that  has  occurred  in  the  art  of  forging  iron.     It  has  given  an 


372 


Five  Black  Arts. 


impetus  to  the  manufacture,  and  affords  facilities  for  the 
welding  of  large  blocks  of  malleable  iron  that  could  not  be 
accomplished  by  the  tilt  and  helve  hammers  formerly  in  use ; 
and  we.  have  only  to  instance  the  forging  of  the  stern-posts 
and  cutwaters  of  iron  ships ;  the  paddle-wheel  and  screw- 
shafts  of  our  ocean  steamers,  some  of  them  weighing  upward 
of  20  tons,  to  appreciate  the  value  as  well  as  the  intensity 
of  action  of  the  steam-hammer. 

In  addition  to  the  machinery  of  the  forge,  the  V  anvil, 
the  natural  offspring  of  the  steam-hammer,  came  into  exist- 
ence from  this  same  fertile  source.  It 
is  chiefly  employed  for  forging  round 
bars  and  shafts,  and  may  be  thus  de- 
scribed, A  being  a  section  of  the  round 
bar  or  shaft  to  be  forged,  B  the  anvil- 
block,  and  C  the  hammer.  From  this, 
it  is  obvious  that,  in  place  of  the  old 
plan,  where  the  work  is  forged  upon 
flat  surfaces,  as  shown  in  the  annexed 
figure,  and  where  the  blows  are  diverg- 
ing, the  effect  of  the  V  anvil  is  a  con- 
verging action,  thus  consolidating  the  mass,  and  enabling  the 
forger  to  retain  his  work  directly  under  the 
center  of  the  hammer.  This  is  the  more  strik- 
ingly apparent,  as  the  blows  of  the  hammer 
upon  a  round  shaft  have  the  effect  of  causing  the 
mass  to  assume  the  elliptical  form,  forcing  out 
the  sides  as  at  AA  in  every  successive  blow, 
and  this  again,  when  turned,  produces  a  spongy,  f 
porous  center,  as  shown  in  D.  This  process  ^a 
is,  however,  more  clearly  exemplified  in  Ry- 
der's forging  paachines,  where  all  the  anvils  are  of  the  V  form, 
for  the  forging  of  spindles,  round  bars,  and  bolts. 

The  next  important  discovery  in  the  art  of  forging, 
is  that  of  Mr.  Ryder's  machine,  patented  some 
years  since,  for  forging  small  articles,  which,  on  ac- 
count of  the  rapidity  and  precision  of  its  operations, 
demands  a  notice  in  passing.  It  consisted  essentially  of  a 
series  of  small  anvils  about  three  inches  square,  supported 
from  below  by  large  screws  passing  through  the  frame  of  the 
machine.     This  screw  was  employed  in  order  that  the  dis- 


IRON.  ] 


[  Pt-atk  9. 


FIG    18 


IRON.  ] 


[  Plate  10. 


Iron — Tue  Forge.  373 

tance  between  tlie  hammer  and  anvil  might  be  accurately  ad- 
justed. Between  the  screw  and  the  anvil,  a  stuflfing  of  cork 
was  introduced  to  deaden  the  effect  of  the  blow.  The  ham- 
mers were  arranged  over  the  anvils,  and  slid  up  and  down  in 
the  frame  of  the  machine.  The  blow  was  effected  by  the 
revolution  of  an  eccentric,  acting  by  means  of  a  cradle  on 
the  hammer-head,  the  hammer,  however,  being  lifted  again 
by  a  strong  spiral  spring.  At  the  side  of  the  machine  was 
a  cutter  or  shears  worked  by  a  long  lever  ;  with  this  the  arti- 
cles were  cut  to  the  required  length  as  they  were  finished. 

In  Mr.  Ryder's  machine  700  strokes  a  minute  was  the 
maximum ;  but  Messrs.  Piatt  Brothers,  of  Oldham,  by  in- 
creasing the  strength  of  the  spring,  run  as  high  as  1100. 
A  pair  of  knife  edges,  worked  by  the  machine  itself,  has 
also  been  substituted  for  the  hand-shears.  These  perform 
the  work  more  rapidly  and  accurately  than  before,  and 
leave  the  workman  more  at  liberty.  Dies  are  let  into  the 
surfaces  of  the  hammers  and  anvils,  which  shape  the  iron  as 
required. 

The  rapidity  with  which  this  machine  executes  all  kinds  of 
intricate  work  is  truly  remarkable ;  for  instance,  a  bar  about 
2|  X  2J  inches,  will  be  reduced  to  li  x  1^  inches,  and  cut 
off  in  a  minute.  Set-screws,  bolts,  spindles,  and  all  kinds  of 
small  work  are  produced  at  the  same  rate.  Its  precision  is 
very  effective  ;  the  articles  are  almost  as  true  as  if  turned  in 
a  lathe,  and  very  accurate  as  to  size  and  weight.  Other 
machines,  called  ''  lifts,"  have  been,  and  continue  to  be,  used 
for  forging  a  variety  of  forms  and  ^'uses;^^  but  as  these 
partake  more  or  less  of  the  principle  employed  in  Ryder's 
machine,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  furnish  further  examples. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  observe  that  the  facilities  afforded 
by  the  present  age  for  the  forging  of  malleable  iron,  are  with- 
out a  parallel  in  the  history  of  that  material.  Every  known 
resource  has  been  adopted,  and  every  contrivance  and  device 
has  been  employed  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  large  and  an  in- 
tricate trade  ;  and  looking  at  the  present  resources  of  the 
country,  and  the  admirable  mechanical  contrivances  for  the 
conversion  of  crude  iron  into  the  malleable  state,  it  assuredly 
is  not  unreasonable  to  look  forward  to  still  greater  improve- 
ments in  the  manipulations  of  the  forge. 


374 


Five  Black  Arts. 


THE  STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  IRON. 

In  this  section  we  have  to  consider  the  tensile  and  trans- 
verse strengths  and  powers  of  resisting  compression  of  cast 
and  malleable  iron  as  determined  by  dn-ect  experiment  upon 
specimens  of  the  material ;  and  also  to  examine  whether, 
as  has  been  alleged,  the  hot-blast  process  injures  the  tenacity 
of  the  metal. 

Cast  Iron. — The  following  tables  give  the  results  of  ex- 
periments undertaken  by  Mr.  Hodgkinson  and  Mr.  Fairbairn  at 
the  request  of  the  British  Association,  to  determine  the  tensile 
and  transverse  strengths  of  cast-iron  derived  from  the  hot  and 
cold  blast.  The  castings  for  ascertaining  the  tensile  strain 
were  made  very  strong  at  the  ends,  with  eyes  for  the  bolts 
to  which  the  shackles  were  attached  ;  the  middle  part,  where 
it  was  intended  that  the  specimen  should  break,  was  cast  of  a 
cruciform  -f-  transverse  section.  The  four  largest  castings 
were  broken  by  the  chain-testing  machine  belonging  to  the 
corporation  of  Liverpool,  the  others  by  Mr.  Fairbairn's  lever. 


Table  I. — Results  of  the  Experiments  on  the  tensile  strength  of  Cast-iron. 


Description  of  Iron. 

Number 
of  Experi- 
ments. 

Mean  strength  per  square 
inch  of  section. 

Carron.  iron,  No.  2,  hot-blast 

3 

2 
2 
2 

1 
1 
1 

2 
2 

IbH. 

13,505 
16,683 
17,755 
14,200 
21,907 
13,434 
17,466 

16,676 

18,855 

tons    cwts. 
6       Oi 

"             "      cold-blast 

7       9" 

"         No.  3,  hot-blast         

7    18^ 
6     7 

"             "      cold-blast . 

Devon  (Scotland)  iron,  No.  3,  hot-blasi 
Buffery  iron.  No.  1,  hot-blast 

9    15i 
6     0 

"              "      cold-blast 

Coed  Talon  (North  Wales)  iron,  No.  2 
hot-blast 

7    16 
7     9 

Do.     do.    cold-blast 

8     8 

From  the  same  series  of  experiments  we  select  the  follow- 
ing tables,  giving  the  results  obtained  in  regard  to  the  resist- 
ance opposed  to  compression  by  cast-iron.  The  specimens 
employed  were  cylinders  and  prisms  of  various  dimensions, 
and  having  their  faces  turned  accurately  parallel  to  each  other 
and  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  specimen.  They  were 
crushed  by  a  lever  between  parallel  steel  discs. 


Iron — Strength  and  other  Properties.   375 


Table  II. 


Weights  required  to  crush  cylinders,  etc.,  of  Carron  Iron,  No.  2, 
Hot-Blast. 


Diameter  of  Cylinder  in  parts 
of  an  inch. 


•64 


Prism  base  '50  inch  square  . 
Prism  base  1-00  x  '26 


Number 
of  Experi- 
ments. 

Me-n 
Crushing 
Weight. 

3 
4 
5 

lbs- 

6,426 
14,542 
22,110 

1 

35,888 

3 

2 

25,104 
26,276 

Me&n  Crushing 
Weight  per 
square  inch 


130.909 
131.665 
121,605 
111,560 
100,416 
101,062 


General  mean  p«r 
square  inch. 


121,685  lbs. 
=  54  tons 
6^  cwt. 

100,738  lbs. 
=  44  tons 
19J  cwt. 


Table  III. — Weights  required  to  crush  cylinders,  etc.,  of  Carron  Iron,  No.  2, 

Cold-Blast. 


liameter  of  Cylinder  in 
parts  of  an  inch. 


Equilateraf  triangle — 

side  -866 

Squares  —  side  ^  inch 
Rectangles — base  1-00 

X  -243 

Cylinders  -45  inch  di- 
ameter, k  -75  inch  high 


Number  of 
Experiments, 


Mean 
Crushing 
Weight. 


6,088 
14,190 
24,290 

32,398 
24,538 

26,237 

15,369 


Mean  Crush 

iiig  Weight 

pei  square 

inch. 


lbs. 
124,023 
128.478 
123,708 

99,769 
98,152 

107,971 

96,634 


General  Mean  per 
square  inch. 


)  125, 
j   19 


403  lbs. 
55  tons 
19J  cwt. 


100,631  lbs. 
=  44  tons 
18^  cwt. 


Table  IV.- 


-Resulls  of  Experiments  to  ascertain  the  forces  necessary  to  crush  short 
cylinders,  etc.,  of  Cast  Iron. 


Description  of  Iron. 


Devon  (Scotch)  iron,  No.  3  hot-blast 
Buffery  iron.  No.  1,  hot-bast 

"        "        cold-blast , 

Coed  Talon,  No.  2,  hot-blast , 

"         "        cold-blast 

Carron  iron,  No.  2,  hot-blast , 

"        "         cold-blast 

Carron  iron,  No.  3.  hot-blast , 

''        "         cold-blast , 


Number 
of   Experi- 


M«an  Crushing  Weight  per 
square  inch. 


lbs. 

145,435 
86,397 
93.:-{85 
82,734 
81,770 

108,540 

133,440 
115,442 


tons.  cwt. 
64  18^ 
38  ll| 
41  13^ 
36  18^ 
36  10 
48  9 
47  9f 
59  n\ 
51  lOf 


The  specimens  of  Carron  iron  in  table  lY.  were  prisms, 
whose  base  was  I  •/•  J  =  i  inch,  and  whose  height  varied 


376 


Five  Black  Arts, 


from  J  inch  to  1  inch.  The  other  specimens  were  cylinders, 
whoso  diameter  was  about  J  inch,  and  height  varied  from  J 
inch  to  2  inches. 

From  the  above  experiments,  Mr.  Hodgkinson  concludes 
that ''  where  the  length  is  not  more  than  about  three  times 
the  diameter,  the  strength  for  a  given  base  is  pretty  nearly 
the  same."  Fracture  took  place  either  by  wedges  sliding 
off,  or  by  the  top  and  bottom  forming  pyramids,  and  forcing 
out  the  sides  ;  and  the  angle  of  the  wedge  is  nearly  constant, 
a  mean  of  21  cylinders  being  55°  32'. 

From  the  same  series  of  experiments,  we  give  the  results 
obtained  by  Mr.  Fairbairn,  in  regard  to  the  effects  of  time 
and  temperature.  The  bars  employed  were  cast  to  be  1  inch 
square,  and  4  feet  6  inches  long,  and  were  loaded  with  per- 
manent weights  as  under  ;  the  deflections  being  taken  at  va- 
rious intervals  during  a  period  of  fifteen  months.  Coed-talon 
hot  and  cold-blast  iron  was  employed. 


Table  V. — The  effects  of  Time  on  loaded  bars  of  Hot  and  Cold-blast  Iron  in  their 
resistance  to  a  transverse  strain. 


rermanent  load  in  lbs. 

Increase  of  deflection  of  cold- 
blast  bars. 

Increase  of  deflection  of 
hot-blast  bars. 

280 
336 
392 
449 

•033 
•046 
•140 
•047 

•043 
•077 
.088 

Mean. 

.066 

•069 

It  has  been  assumed  by  most  writers  on  the  strength  of 
materials,  that  the  elasticity  of  cast-iron  remained  perfect  to 
the  extent  of  one-third  the  weight  that  would  break  it.  This 
is,  however,  a  mere  assumption,  as  it  has  been  found  that  the 
elasticity  of  cast-iron  is  injured  with  less  than  one-half  that 
weight,  and  the  question  to  be  solved  in  the  above  experiments 
was,  to  what  extent  the  material  could  be  loaded  without  en- 
dangering its  security ;  or  how  long  it  would  continue  to  sup- 
port weights,  varying  from  one-half  to  one-tenth  of  the  load 
that  would  produce  fracture.  These  experiments  were  con- 
tinued from  six  to  seven  years,  and  the  results  obtained  were, 


Iron — Strength  and  other  Properties. 


377 


that  the  bars  which  were  loaded  to  within  yV  of  their  breaking 
weight,  would  have  continued  to  have  borne  the  load,  in  the 
absence  of  any  disturbing  cause,  ad  infinitum ;  but  the  ef- 
fect of  change,  either  of  the  same  or  a  lighter  load  led  ulti- 
mately to  fracture. 

From  these  facts  it  is  deduced,  that  so  long  as  the  mole- 
cules of  the  material  are  under  strain  (however  severe  that 
strain  may  be),  they  will  arrange  and  accomodate  themselves 
to  the  pressure,  but  with  the  slightest  disturbance,  whether 
produced  from  vibration  or  the  increase  or  diminution  of  load, 
it  becomes,  under  these  influences,  only  a  question  of  time 
when  rupture  ensues. 

In  the  following  experiments  on  the  relative  strengths  of 
coed-talon  hot  and  cold-blast  iron  to  resist  transverse  strain 
at  different  temperatures,  the  results  are  reduced  to  those  of 
bars  2  feet  3  inches  between  supports,  and  one  inch  square, 
as  follows : 

Table  VI. 


Tempe- 
rature, 
Fahr. 

Specific 

Modulus  of 

Breaking 

Ultimate 

Power 
of  re- 

Gravity. 

Elasticity. 

weight. 

deflection. 

^isiing 

impact. 

Cold  Blast,  No.  2  ... . 

27° 

6955 

12799050 

874 

.4538 

397.7 

32» 

6U55 

14327450 

919.8 

.402 

882.4 

113« 

6  955 

14168000 

812.9 

.336 

273.1 

Hot  Blast,  No.  2  .... 

20'» 

6  968 

14902900 

811.69 

.4002 

325.0 

32" 

6-968 

140033;30 

919,7 

.429 

395.0 

SI"* 

6  968 

14500000 

877.5 

.421 

366.4 

Cold  Blast,  No.  2  .... 

192» 

14398600 

743.1 

.301 

223.7 

No.3.... 

212" 

600" 

.... 

924.5 
1033.0 

No.  2  '.'.'.'. 

Red   by^ 

6633 

" 

daylight. 
Hed  III  dark. 

.... 

723  1 

not  Blast,  No.  2    '.'.'.'. 

136° 

.... 

13046266 

875.7 

.389 

310  6 

" 

187° 

.... 

11012500 

638.8 

.359 

229  3 

(C 

188o 

13869500 

823  6 

.363 

298.9 

No.3  '.!.".■ 

212» 

.... 

818  4 

(( 

600» 

.... 

875  8 

No.  2  .'.*!! 

ReJindark. 

.... 

8297 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  "  that  a  considerable  fail- 
ure of  the  strength  took  place  after  heating  the  No.  2  iron 
from  26°  to  190°.  At  212°,  we  have  in  the  No.  3  a  much 
greater  weight  sustained  than  by  No.  2  at  190°  ;  and  at  600° 
there  appears,  in  both  hot  and  cold-bast,  the  anomaly  of  in- 
creased strength  as  the  temperature  is  increased."  *     The 


*  This  probably  arises  from  the  greater  ductility  of  the  bars  at  an  increased 
temperature. 


378 


Five  Black  Arts. 


above  results  are,  with  one  exception,  in  favor  of  the  cold- 
blast,  as  far  as  strength  is  concerned  ;  and  in  favor  of  the  hot- 
blast,  with  one  exception,  as  regards  power  of  resisting  im- 
pact. 

With  regard  to  the  comparative  strengths  of  hot  and  cold- 
blast  iron,  the  following  extracts  from  Mr.  Hodgkinson's  re- 
port, read  before  the  British  Association,  give  the  general 
results  of  his  experiments  : 

Table  Yll.—Carron  Iron,  No.  2. 


Tensile  Btrength  in  lbs.  per  inch  square  . . . 

Comprest<ive  do.  in  lbs.  per  inch,  from 
castings  torn  asunder 

Do.  from  prisms  of  vai  ious  forms 

Do.  from  cylinders 

Transvtrse  strength  from  all  the  experi- 
ments   

Power  to  resist  impact 

Transverse  strength  of  bars  1  inch  square 
in  lbs • 

Ultimate  deflection  of  do.  in  inches 

Modulus  of  elasticity  in  lbs.  per  square 
inch 

Specific  gravity 


Cold-blast. 


106375 
100631 
125403 


476 
1313 


17270500 
7-066 


(2) 

(2) 
(2) 
(13; 

(11) 
(9) 

(3) 
(3) 

(2) 


TTof.hljis^       '^"■*^*°  representing 
llot-blast.     Cold-blast  by  1000. 


13505  (3) 

108540  (2) 
100788  (2) 
121685  (13) 

(13) 
(9J 

463  (3) 
1  337  (3) 

16086000  (2) 
7046 


1000 :  809 

1000:  1020  I 

1000:  1001  f 

1000:  970  J 


1000 
1000 


991 
1.05 


1000 :     973 
1000:  3018 


1000 :     931 
1000:     997 


Table  VIII. — Devon  Iron,  No.  3. 


Tensile  strength 

.Compressive  do 

Transverse  do.  from  the  experiments  gen- 
erally   

Power  to  resist  impact 

Transverse  strength  of  bars  1  inch  square 

Ultimate  deflection  do 

Modulus  of  elasticity  do 

Specific  gravity 


Cold-blaet. 


(5) 

(4) 

448 (2) 

79(2) 

22907700  (2: 

7  295  (4) 


Hot-blast. 


21907  (1) 
145435  (4) 

(5) 

(4) 

537(2) 

1  09  (2) 

22473650  (2) 

7-229  (2) 


Ratio  representing 
Cold-blast  by  1000. 


ICOO  :  1417 
1000  :2786 
1000  :1199 
1000  :  1380 
1000  :  981 
1000  :  991 


Table  IX.—Buffery  Iron,  No.   1. 


Tensile  strength 

Compressive  do 

Transverse  do 

Power  to  resist  impact  . . 
Transverse  strength  of  bars 

one  inch  square 

Ultimate  deflection  do  . . 
Modulus  of  elasticity  do. 
Specific  gravity 


17466 

(1) 

93366 

(4) 

(5) 

(iJ) 

463 

(3) 

1-55 

(3) 

15381200 

(2) 

7-079 

13434 

(1) 

86397 

(4) 

(5) 

(2) 

436 

(3) 

1.64 

(3) 

13730500 

(2) 

6-998 

1000  :  769 

1000  :  925 

1000  :  931 

1000  :  963 

1000  :  942 

1000  :  1058 

1000  :  893 

1000  :  989 


Iron — Strength  and  other  Properties.       379 


Table   X.—Coed 

Talon  Iron, 

No.  2. 

Tensile  strength  . 
Compressive  do. 
Specific  gravity  . 

18855  (2) 
81770  (4) 
G-955  (4) 

16676  (2) 
82739  (4) 
6-968  (3) 

1000  : 
1000: 
1000  : 

884 

1012 

1002 

Table   XI.—Qirron  Iron,  No.   3. 

Tensile  strength 

14200  (2) 
115442  (4) 
7-135 

17755  (2) 

133440  (3) 

7-056  (1) 

1000 
1000 
1000 

:  1250 

Compressive  do. 

:  1156 

Specific  gravity" 

:    989 

"  Beginning  with  No.  1  iron,  of  which  we  have  a  specimen 
from  the  Buffery  Iron- Works,  a  few  miles  from  Birmingham, 
we  find  the  cold-blast  iron  somewhat  surpassing  the  hot-blasfe 
in  all  the  following  particulars:  direct  tensile  strength,  com- 
pressive strength,  transverse  strength,  power  to  resist  impact, 
modulus  of  elasticity  or  stiffness,  specific  gravity ;  whilst  the 
only  numerical  advantage  possessed  by  the  hot-blast  iron  is, 
that  it  bends  a  little  more  than  the  cold-blast  before  it  breaks. 

"  In  the  irons  of  the  quality  J^To.  2,  the  case  seems  in  some 
degree  different ;  in  these  the  advantages  of  the  rival  kinds 
seem  to  be  more  nearly  balanced.  They  are  still,  however, 
rather  in  favor  of  the  cold-blast. 

"  So  far  as  my  experiments  have  proceeded,  the  irons  of 
No.  1  have  been  deteriorated  by  the  hot-blast ;  those  of  No. 
2  appear  also  to  have  been  slightly  injured  by  it,  while  the  irons 
of  No.  3  seem  to  have  benefited  by  its  mollifying  powers. 
The  Carron  iron  No.  3  hot-blast,  resists  both  tension  and 
compression  with  considerably  more  energy  than  that  made 
with  the  cold-blast ;  and  the  No.  3  hot-blast  iron  from  the 
Devon  works,  in  Scotland,  is  one  of  the  strongest  cast-irons 
I  have  seen,  whilst  that  made  by  the  cold-blast  is  compara- 
tively weak,  though  its  specific  gravity  is  very  high,  and 
higher  than  in  the  hot.  The  extreme  hardness  of  the  cold- 
blast  Devon  iron  above  prevented  many  experiments  that  would 
otherwise  have  been  made  upon  it,  no  tools  being  hard  enough 
to  form  the  specimens.  The  difference  of  strength  in  the 
Devon  irons  is  peculiarly  striking. 

"  From  the  evidence  here  brought  forward,  it  is  rendered 


880 


Five  Black  Arts, 


exceedingly  probable  that  the  introduction  of  the  heated  blast 
in  the  manufacture  of  cast-iron  has  injured  the  softer  irons, 
whilst  it  has  frequently  mollified  and  improved  those  of  a 
harder  nature,  and,  considering  the  small  deterioration  that 
the  irons  of  quality  No.  2  have  sustained,  and  the  apparent 
benefit  to  those  of  No.  3,  together  with  the  great  saving 
effected  by  the  heated  blast,  there  seems  good  reason  for  the 
process  becoming  as  general  as  it  has  done." 

The  following  table  gives  a  general  summary  of  the  re- 
sults of  Mr.  Fairbairn's  experiments  on  the  strength  of  iron 
after  successive  meltings.  The  iron  used  was  Eglinton  No.  3 
hot-blast,  and  was  melted  eighteen  times,  three  bars  being 
cast  at  each  melting.  These  bars,  which  were  about  1  inch 
square  and  5  feet  long,  were  placed  upon  supports  4  feet  6 
apart,  and  broken  by  a  transverse  strain.  Cubes,  from  the 
same  irons,  exactly  1  inch  square,  were  then  crushed  between 
parallel  steel  bars,  by  a  large  wrought-iron  lever. 

In  the  following  Table  XII.,  the  results  on  transverse  strain 
are  reduced  to  those  on  bars  exactly  1  inch  square  and  4  feet  6 
inches  between  supports : 


No.  of 
melting. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Mean  breaking 
weight  in  lbs. 

Mean  ultimate 

*deflection  in 

inches. 

Power  to  resist 
imttact. 

Mean  crushing 
weight  of  inch 
cubes  in  tons. 

1 

6.966 

490.0 

1.440 

705.6 

1 

2 

6.970 

441.9 

1.446 

630.9 

3 

6.886 

401.6 

1.486 

596.7 

4 

6.938 

413.4 

1.260 

520.8 

41.9 

5 

6.842 

431.6 

1.503 

648.6 

6 

6.771 

438.7 

1.320 

579.0 

7 

6.879 

449.1 

1.440 

646.7 

8 

7.025 

491.3 

1.753 

861.2 

9 

7.102 

546.5 

1.620 

885.3 

- 

10 

7.108 

566.9 

1.626 

921.7 

1 

11 

7.113 

651.9 

1.636 

1066.5 

J-64.3 

12 

7.160 

692.1 

1.666 

1153.0 

1 

13 

7.134 

634.8 

1.646 

1044.9 

J 

14 

7.530 

603.4 

1.513 

912.9 

; 

15 

7.248 

371.1 

0.643 

23.S.6 

16 

7.330 

351.3 

0.566 

198.5 

\  82.8 

17 

lo.'^t. 

1 

18 

7.385 

312.7 

0.476 

148.8 

J 

In  the  above  results  it  will  be  observed  that  the  maximum 
of  strength,  elasticity,  etc.,  is  only  arrived  at  after  the  metal 


Iron — Strength  and  other  Properties. 


381 


has  undergone  twelve  successive  meltings.  It  is  probable 
that  other  metals  and  their  alloys  may  follow  the  same  law, 
but  that  is  a  question  that  has  yet  to  be  solved,  probably  by 
a  series  of  experiments  requiring  a  considerable  amount  of 
time  and  labor  to  accomplish,  but  which  we  may  venture  to 
hope  will  be  shortly  forthcoming  from  the  same  author. 

In  the  resistance  of  the  different  meltings  from  the  same 
iron,  to  a  force  tending  to  crush  them,  we  have  the  following 
results : 

Table  XtiL 


Re-istance  to 

Number  of 

compression  per 

Remarks. 

meltings. 

square  incii,  in 

tons. 

1 

44.0 

2 

43.6 

3 

41.1 

4 

40.7 

5 

41.1 

6 

41.1 

7 

40.9 

8 

41.1 

9 

55.1 

10 

57.7 

.   Ill 

Hi 

MeanG9.8 

f  In  this  experiment  the  cube  did  not  bed  prop- 

12 

73.1 

^  erly  on  the  steel  plates,  otherwise  it  would  have 
[  resisted  a  much  greater  force. 

13 

66.0 

U 

95.9 

15 

76.7 

16 

70.5 

18 

88.0 

Nearly  the  whole  of  the  specimens  were  fractured  by 
wedges  which  split  or  slid  oflf  diagonally  at  an  angle  of  52° 
to  58°. 

Malleable  Iron. — The  greatly  extended  application  of 
wrought-iron  to  every  variety  of  construction  renders  an  in- 
vestigation of  its  properties  peculiarly  interesting.  It  is  now 
employed  more  extensively  than  cast-iron ;  and,  on  account 
of  its  ductility  and  strength,  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  weight 
of  material  may  in  many  cases  be  saved  by  its  employment, 
"while  great  lightness  and  durability  are  secured.  Its  superi- 
ority is  especially  evident  in  constructions  where  great  stiff- 
ness is  not  required,  but  on  the  other  hand  any  degree  of 


882  Five  Black  Arts. 

rigidity  may  be  obtained  by  the  employment  of  a  tubular  or 
cellular  structure,  and  this  may  be  seen  in  the  construction 
of  wrought-iron  tubular  bridges,  beams,  and  iron  ships. 
The  material  of  malleable  iron  which  is  making  such  vast 
changes  in  the  forms  of  construction,  cannot  but  be  interest- 
ing and  important,  and  considering  that  the  present  is  far 
from  the  limit  of  its  application,  we  shall  endeavor  to  give  it 
that  degree  of  attention  which  the  importance  of  the  subject 
demands. 

From  the  forge  and  the  rolling  mill  we  derive  two  distinct 
qualities  of  iron,  known  as  '•'red  short  "  and  *'  cold  short,^^ 
The  former  is  the  most  ductile,  and  is  a  tough  fibrous  mate- 
rial which  exhibits  considerable  strength  when  cold  ;  the  latter 
is  more  brittle,  and  has  a  highly  crystalline  fracture  almost  like 
cast-iron  ;  but  the  fact  is  probably  not  generally  known,  that 
the  brittle  works  as  well  and  is  as  ductile  under  the  hammer 
as  the  other  when  at  a  high  temperature. 

Mr.  Charles  Hood,  in  a  paper  read  some  time  ago  before 
the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers,  went  into  the  subject  of  the 
change  in  the  internal  structure  of  iron,  independently  of  and 
subsequently  to  the  processes  of  its  manufacture.  After  ad- 
ducing several  instances  of  tough  fibrous  malleable  iron  be- 
coming crystalline  and  brittle  during  their  employment,  he 
attributes  these  changes  to  the  influence  of  percussion,  heat, 
and  magnetism,  but  questions  whether  either  will  produce  the 
effect  per  se.  Mr.  Hood  continues,  "  The  most  common  ex- 
emplification of  the  effect  of  heat  in  crystallizing  fibrous  iron 
is  by  breaking  a  wrought-iron  furnace  bar,  which,  whatever 
quality  it  was  of  in  the  first  instance,  will  in  a  short  time  in- 
variably be  converted  into  crystallized  iron,  and  by  heating  and 
rapidly  cooling,  by  quenching  with  water  a  few  times  any  piece 
of  wrought-iron,  the  same  effect  may  be  far  more  speedily  pro- 
duced. In  these  cases  we  have  at  least  two  of  the  above 
causes  in  operation — heat  and  magnetism.  In  every  instance 
of  heating  iron  to  a  very  high  temperature,  it  undergoes  a 
change  in  its  electric  or  magnetic  condition  ;  for  at  very 
high  temperatures  iron  loses  its  magnetic  powers,  which  return 
as  it  gradually  cools  to  a  lower  temperature.  In  the  case  of 
quenching  the  iron  with  water,  we  have  a  still  more  decisive 
assistance  from  the  electric  and  magnetic  forces ;  for  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy  long  since  pointed  out  that  all  cases  of 


Iron — Strength  and  other  Properties.       383 

vaporization  produced  negative  electricity  in  the  bodies  in 
contact  with  the  vapor  ;  a  fact  which  has  lately  excited  a 
good  deal  of  attention  in  consequence  of  the  discovery  of 
large  quantities  of  negative  electricity  in  effluent  steam." 
Mr.  Hood  then  proceeds  to  the  subject  of  percussion.  "  In 
the  manufacture  of  some  descriptions  of  hammered  iron,  the 
bar  is  first  rolled  into  shape,  and  then  one-half  the  length  of 
the  bar  is  heated  in  the  furnace,  and  immediately  taken  to  the 
tilt-hammer  and  hammered,  and  the  other  end  of  the  bar  is  then 
heated  and  hammered  in  the  same  manner.  In  order  to  avoid 
any  unevenness  in  the  bar,  or  any  difference  in  its  color  where 
the  two  distinct  operations  have  terminated,  the  workman  fre- 
quently gives  the  bar  a  few  blows  with  the  hammer  upon  that 
part  which  he  first  operated  upon.  That  part  of  the  bar  im- 
mediately becomes  crystallized,  and  so  extremely  brittle  that  it 
will  break  to  pieces  by  merely  throwing  it  on  the  ground, 
though  all  the  rest  of  the  bar  will  exhibit  the  best  and  toughest 
quality  imaginable.  This  change,  therefore,  has  been  pro- 
duced by  percussion  (as  the  primary  agent)  when  the  bar  is 
at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  welding  heat.  Here  it  must 
be  observed  that  it  is  not  the  excess  of  hammering  which  pro- 
duces the  effect,  but  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  degree  of 
heat,  at  the  time  that  the  hammering  takes  place  ;  and  the 
evil  may  probably  all  be  produced  by  four  or  five  blows  of 
the  hammer  if  the  bar  happens  to  be  of  a  small  size.  In  this 
case  we  witness  the  combined  effects  of  percussion,  heat, 
and  magnetism.  When  the  bar  is  hammered  at  the  proper 
temperature,  no  such  crystallization  takes  place,  because  the 
bar  is  insensible  to  magnetism ;  but  as  soon  as  the  bar  be- 
comes of  that  lower  degree  of  temperature  at  which  it  can  be 
affected  by  magnetism,  the  effect  of  the  blows  it  receives  is 
to  produce  magnetic  induction,  and  that  magnetic  induction 
and  consequent  polarity  of  its  particles,  when  assisted  by 
further  vibrations  from  additional  percussion,  produces  a 
crystallized  texture." 

The  crystallization  of  perfectly  fibrous  and  ductile  wrought- 
iron  has  long  been  a  subject  of  dispute,  and  although  we 
agree  with  most  of  Mr.  Hood's  views,  we  are  not  altogether 
prepared  to  admit  that  the  causes  assignd  are  the  only  ones  con- 
cerned in  producing  the  change,  or  that  more  than  one  is  neces- 
8ary,  On  the  occasion  of  the  accident  on  the  Versailles  Railway 


384  Five  Black  Arts. 

some  years  since,  the  whole  array  of  science  and  practice  were 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  elucidation  of  the  cause.  Undoubt- 
edly the  broken  axle  presented  a  crystalline  fracture,  but  it 
has  never  been  ascertained  how  far  heat  and  magnetism  were 
in  operation  as  in  the  case  of  an  axle,  and  more  especialy  a  crank- 
axle,  the  constant  vibration  caused  by  irregularities  in  the  way 
and  the  weight  of  the  engine  appears  to  be  quite  sufficient  to 
occasion  the  breakage  without  aid  from  the  other  forces. 
Undoubtedly  in  almost  all  cases  of  the  sudden  fracture  of 
axles  or  wrought-iron  bars,  during  employment,  the  fracture 
presents  a  crystalline  structure,  but  we  believe  that  any 
molecular  disturbance,  such  as  impact,  can  effect  this,  the 
only  question  being,  how  long  will  the  material  sustain  the 
action  before  it  breaks.  This  question  has  been  attempted  to 
be  decided  by  direct  experiment  under  the  direction  of  the 
Commission  on  Railway  Structures.  It  was  found  that  with 
cast-iron  bars  subjected  to  long  continued  impacts,  "  when  the 
blow  was  powerful  enough  to  bend  the  bars  through  one-half 
of  their  ultimate  deflection  (that  is  to  say,  the  deflection 
which  corresponds  to  their  fracture  by  dead  pressure),  no  bar 
was  able  to  stand  4000  of  such  blows  in  succession.  But  all 
the  bars  (when  sound)  resisted  the  effects  of  4000  blows,  each 
bending  them  through  one-third  of  their  ultimate  deflection. 
These  results  were  confirmed  by  experiments  with  a  revolv- 
ing cam  which  deflected  the  bars. 

"  In  wrought-iron  bars  no  very  perceptible  effect  was  produced 
by  10,000  successive  deflections  by  means  of  a  revolving 
cam,  each  deflection  being  due  to  half  the  weight  which, 
when  applied  statically,  produced  a  large  permanent  flexure." 
These  results  agree  with  those  obtained  by  Mr.  Fairbairn 
in  regard  to  the  effects  of  time  on  loaded  bars  of  cast-iron, 
already  given. 

Arago  and  Wollaston  have  paid  considerable  attention  to 
this  subject,  the  latter  having  been  the  first  to  point  cut  that 
native  iron  is  disposed  to  break  in  octohedra  and  tetrahedra, 
or  combinations  of  these  forms.  The  law  which  leads  to 
fracture  in  wrought-iron  from  changes  in  the  molecular  struc- 
ture operates  with  more  or  less  intensity  in  other  bodies ;  re- 
peated disturbances,  in  turn,  destroying  the  cohesive  force  of 
the  material  by  which  they  are  held  together.  A  French 
writer  of  eminence,  Arago,  appears  to  consider  the  crystalliza- 


Iron — Strength  and  other  Properties.       386 

tion  of  wrought-iron  to  be  due  to  the  joint  action  of  time  and 
vibration,  but  we  think  with  Mr.  Hood  that  time  and  its  du- 
ration depends  entirely  upon  the  intensity  of  the  disturbing 
forces,  and,  moreover,  that  the  time  of  fracture  is  retarded 
or  accelerated  in  a  given  ratio  to  the  intensity  with  which 
these  forces  are  applied. 

From  the  above  statements  we  may  safely  deduce  the  fact, 
that  it  is  essential  to  the  use  of  this  material  to  consider  the 
purposes  to  which  it  is  applied,  the  forms  to  which  it  may  be 
subjected,  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  may  be  placed, 
in  order  to  arrive  at  just  conclusions  as  to  the  proportions,  in 
order  to  afford  to  the  structure  (whatever  that  may  be)  ample 
security  in  its  powers  of  resistance  to  strain. 

On  the  subject  of  the  strength  of  wrought-iron,  we  have 
before  us  the  researches  of  Mr.  Fairbairn,  in  a  paper  entitled, 
"  An  Inquiry  into  the  Strength  of  wrought-iron  plates  and 
their  riveted  joints,  as  applied  to  Ship-building  and  Vessels 
exposed  to  severe  strains."  *  In  that  communication  it  is 
shown,  from  direct  experiments,  that  in  plates  of  rolled  iron 
there  is  no  material  difference  between  those  torn  asunder  in  the 
direction  of  the  fiber,  and  those  torn  asunder  across  the  fiber. 
This  uniformity  of  resistance  arises  probably  from  the  way  in 
which  the  plates  are  manufactured,  which  is  generally  out  of 

flat  bars,  cut  and  piled  upon  each 
other,  as  at  A,  one-half  transverse- 
ly and  the  other  half  longitudinal 
in  the  line  of  the  pile.    From  this 


:V 


it  will  be  seen  that  in  preparing  the  bloom  or  shingle  for 
the  rollers,  the  fiber  is  equally  divided,  and  the  only  supe- 
riority that  can  possibly  be  attained  is  in  the  rolling,  which 
draws  the  shingle  rather  more  in  the  direction  of  the  length 
of  the  plate  than  its  breadth. 

*  Philosophical  Transactions,  part  ii.,  1850,  p.  677. 

25 


886 


Five  Black  Arts. 


In  the  following  table  we  have  the  results  of  the  experi- 
ments : 


Quality  of  Plates. 


Yorkshire  plates 

Yorkshire  plates 

Derbyshire  plates , 

Shropshire  plates 

Staffordshire  plates 

Mean, 


Mean  breaking 
weight  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  fiber,  in 

tons  per  square 
inch. 


25.770 
22.760 
21.680 
22.826 
19.563 


22.519 


Mean  breaking 

weight  across  the 

fiber,  in  tons  per 

square  inch. 


27.490 
26.037 
18.650 
22.000 
21.010 


23.037 


Or  as  22.5,  23.0,  equal  to  about  ^^  in  favor  of  those  torn 
across  the  fiber. 

From  the  above  it  is  satisfactory  to  know,  so  far  as  regards 
uniformity  in  the  strength  of  plates,  that  the  liability  to  rup- 
ture is  as  great  when  drawn  in  one  direction  as  in  the  other ; 
and  it  is  not  improbable,  that  the  same  properties  would  be  ex- 
hibited, and  the  same  resistance  maintained,  if  the  plates 
were  drawn  in  any  particular  direction  obliquely  across  the 
fibrous  or  laminated  structure. 

From  the  same  author  we  select  the  results  of  a  series  of 

experiments  on  the  tensile  strength  of  S  C  ^^^  bars  of  dif- 
ferent lengths,  and  about  If  in  diameter.  The  following 
table  gives  the  strains  required  for  each  of  four  succesive 
breakages  of  the  same  pieces  of  iron.  These  experiments 
are  highly  interesting,  as  they  not  only  confirm  those  made 
upon  plates,  but  they  indicate  a  progressive  increase  of 
strength,  notwithstanding  the  elongation  and  the  reduced  sec- 
tional area  of  the  bars.  These  facts  are  of  considerable  value, 
as  they  distinctly  show  that  a  severe  tensile  strain  is  not  serious- 
ly injurious  to  the  bearing  powers  of  wrought-iron,  even  when 
carried  to  the  extent  of  or  increased  four  times  repeated,  as 
was  done  in  these  experiments.  In  practice  it  may  not  be 
prudent  to  test  bars  and  chains  to  their  utmost  limit  of  resist- 
ance ;  it  is  nevertheless  satisfactory  to  know  that  in  cases  of 
emergency  those  limits  may  be  approached  without  incurring 
serious  risk  of  injury  to  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  material. 


Irox — Strength  and  other  Properties.       387 
The  following  abstract  gives  the  results  of  the  experiments : 


Length  between  the  nippers. 

Breaking  Strain  in  tons. 

Mean  Elongation  in  inches. 

Inches. 

120 

32-21 

26-0 

42 

32-125 

9-8 

36 

32-35 

8-8 

24 

32-00 

6-2 

10 

32-29 

4-2 

"  As  all  these  experiments  were  made  upon  the  same  de- 
scription of  iron,  it  may  be  fairly  inferred  that  the  length  of 
a  bar  does  not  in  any  way  affect  its  strength.'' 

Reduction  of  the  above  Table. 


Length  of  bar. 

Elongation. 

Elongation  per  unit  of  length. 

Inches. 

120 

260 

•216 

42 

9-8 

•233 

36 

8-8 

•244 

24 

6-2 

•258 

10 

4-2 

•420 

"  Here  it  appears  that  the  rate  of  elongation  of  bars  of 
wrought-iron  increases  with  the  decrease  of  their  length ; 
thus  while  a  bar  of  120  inches  had  an  elongation  of  '216 
inch  per  unit  of  its  length,  a  bar  of  ten  inches  has  an  elon- 
gation of  '42  inch  per  unit  of  its  length,  or  nearly  double 
what  it  is  in  the  former  case.  The  relation  between  the  length 
of  and  its  maximum  elongation  per  unit,  may  be  approximately 
expressed  by  the  following  formula,  viz. : 

where  L  represents  the  length  of  the  bar,  and  I  the  elonga- 
tion per  unit  of  the  length  of  the  bar." 

The  above  results  are  not  without  value,  as  they  exhibit 
the  ductility  of  wrought-iron  at  a  low  temperature,  as  also  the 
greatly  increased  strength  it  exhibits  with  a  reduced  sectional 
area  under  severe  strain. 

On  the  transverse  strength  of  wrought-iron  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  enlarge,  as  we  have  numerous  examples  before 


388  Five  Black  Arts. 

us  in  the  experiments  undertaken  to  determine  the  strength  and 
form  of  the  Britannia  and  Conway  Tubular  Bridges.*  In 
these  experiments  will  be  found  an  entirely  new  description 
and  form  of  construction,  which  have  emanated  from  them, 
and  which  have  led  to  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  bridges, 
and  the  application  of  wrought-iron  to  other  purposes  besides 
those  in  connection  with  buildings,  and  its  greatly  extended 
application  to  the  useful  arts.  For  further  information  on 
this  subject  we  refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  Fairbairn's  f  and  Pro- 
fessor Hodgkinson's  works,  in  both  of  which  will  be  found 
data  sufficient  to  establish  the  great  superiority  of  malleable 
over  cast-iron,  or  any  other  material,  either  as  regards  strength 
or  economy  in  its  application. 

On  the  resistance  of  wrought-iron  plates  to  a  force  tend- 
ing to  burst  them,  Rondelet  has  shown  that  it  requires  a  force 
of  70,000  lbs.  per  square  inch  to  produce  fracture,  and  Mr. 
Fairbairn's  experiments  proved  that  a  wrought-iron  plate  of 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick  resisted  a  pressure  from  a  ball 
3  inches  in  diameter,  equal  to  that  required  to  rupture  a  3 
inch  oak  plank. 

At  the  request  of  the  British  Association,  Dr.  Thomson  of 
Glasgow  examined  the  chemical  constitution  of  hot-blast  iron, 
and  he  gives  the  following  as  the  result  of  his  inquiry : 

"  (1.)  The  specific  gravity  of  hot-blast  iron  is  greater  than  that  of  cold- 
blast. 

"  The  following  is  the  specific  gravities  of  eight  specimens  of  cold-blast 
iron. 

Ist.  Muirkirk 6-410  I  5th.  Muirkirk 6775 

2d.        Do 6-435  |  6th.  From  Pyrites 6-9444 

3d.        Do 6-493  I  7th.  From  Carron 6-9888 

4th.       Do 6-579  I  8th.  Clyde  Iron- Works 7-0028 

*'  The  specific  gravity  of  the  Muirkirk  iron  is  considerably  less  than  of 
that  smelted  at  Carron  and  the  Clyde  Iron- Works  ;  the  mean  of  the  eight 
specimens  is  6.7034. 

"  It  has  been  hitherto  supposed  that  the  difference  between  cast-iron  and 
malleable  iron  consists  in  the  presence  of  carbon  in  the  former,  and  its 
absence  from  the  latter  ;  in  other  words,  that  cast-iron  is  a  carburet  of  iron. 
But  in  all  the  specimens  of  cast-iron  which  we  analyzed  we  constantly 
found  several  other  ingredients  besides  iron  and  carbon.  Manganese  is 
pretty  generally  present  in  minute  quantity,  though  in  one  specimen  it 
amounted  to  no  less  a  quantity  than  7  per  cent.  ;  its  average  amount  is  2 
per  cent.     Silicon  is  never  wanting,  though  its  amount  is  exceedingly 

*  See  Mr.  Fairbairn's  and  Mr.  Edwin  Clark's  work  on  the  Conway  and  Britannia 
Tubular  Bridges. 

t  "  On  tlie  application  of  cast  and  wrought-iron  to  building  purposes,"  and  "  Useful 
information  for  Engineers." 


Iron — Strength  and  other  Properties. 


389 


variable,  the  average  quantity  is  1 J  per  cent. ;  some  specimens  contained 
3^  per  cent,  of  it,  while  others  contained  less  than  a  half  percent.  Alumi- 
num is  very  rarely  altogether  absent,  though  its  amount  is  more  variable 
than  that  of  silicon.  Its  average  amount  is  2  per  cent.  ;  sometimes  it  ex- 
ceeds 4^  per  cent.,  and  sometimes  it  is  not  quite  l-5000th  part  of  the  weight 
of  the  iron. 

"  Calcium  and  magnesium  are  sometimes  present,  but  very  rarely,  and 
the  quantity  does  not  exceed  l-5th  per  cent.  In  a  specimen  of  cast-iron 
which  I  got  from  Mr.Neilson,  and  which  he  had  smelted  from  pyrites,  there 
was  a  trace  of  copper,  showing  that  the  pyrites  employed  was  not  quite 
free  from  copper  ;  and  in  a  specimen  from  the  Clyde  Iron- Works  there  was 
a  trace  of  sulphur.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  composition  of  six 
different  specimens  of  cast-iron.  No.  1,  analyzed  in  my  laboratory,  either  by 
myself  or  by  Mr.  John  Tennent. 


Muirkirk 

Muirkirk. 

Muirkirk 

Pyrites. 

Carron 

Cljde. 

Mean. 

Iron 

90-98 

7-*40 
0-46 
0-48 

90-29 

7-14 

1-706 
0-830 
0-016 
0-018 

91-38 

2-00 

4-88 
1-10 

6-20 

89-442 
0-288 

3-600 
3-220 
3-776 

94-010 

0-626 

3-086 
1-006 
1-032 

90-824 

2-458 
0-045 
2-458 
0-450 
4-602 

0-340 

91-154 

Copper 

Manganese 

Sulphur 

Carbon  

Silica 

Aluminum 

Calcium 

Magnesium,  . . . 

2-037 

3-855 
1177 
1-651 

"  The  constant  constituents  ot  cold-blast  cast-iron,  No.  1,  are  iron,  man- 
ganese, carbon,  silicon,  and  aluminum.  The  occasional  constituents  are 
copper,  sulphur,  calcium,  and  magnesium.  These  occur  so  rarely,  and  in 
such  minute  quantity,  that  we  may  overlook  them  altogether. 

"  The  constant  constituents  occur  in  the  following  mean  atomic  propor- 
tions : 

22  atoms  iron =  77-00 

J  atom  manganese =    1-75 

4-36  atoms  carbon  =    3-27 

1    atom  silicon =    1-00 

1^  aluminum  =    1-40—84-42 

"  (2.)  I  examined  only  one  specimen  of  cast-iron,  No.  2.  It  was  an  old 
specimen,  said  to  have  come  from  Sweden,  but  I  have  no  evidence  of  the 
correctness  of  this  statement.  Its  specific  gravity  was  7-1633  higher  than 
any  specimens  of  cold-blast  iron.  No.  1.    Its  constituents  were  : 

Iron 93-594 

Manganese 0-708 

Carbon 3-080 

Silicon 1-262 

Aluminum 0-732 

Sulphur   0-038—99-414 

"  The  presence  of  sulphur  in  this  specimen  leads  to  the  suspicion  that  it 
is  not  a  Swedish  specimen  ;  for  as  the  Swedish  ore  is  magnetic  iron,  and  the 
fuel  charcoal,  the  presence  of  sulphur  in  the  iron  is  very  unlikely.* 

*  I  have  been  told  by  Mr.  Mushet  that  '.he  Swedes  add  sulphur  to  their  iron  No.  3 


390 


Five  Black  Arts. 


'*  Iq  this  specimen,  the  atoms  of  iron  and  manganese  are  to  those  of 
carbon,  silicon,  and  aluminum,  in  the  proportion  of  4|-  to  one,  instead  of 
3^-  to  one,  as  in  cast-iron  No.  1. 

"'^  The  atoms  of  carbon,  silicon,  and  aluminum,  approach  the  proportions 
of  7,  2,  and  1,  so  that  in  cast-iron,  No.  2,  judging  from  one  specimen,  there 
is  a  greater  proportion  of  carbon,  compared  with  the  silicon  and  aluminum, 
than  in  cast-iron  No.  1. 

"  Mr.  Tennent  analyzed  a  specimen  of  hot-blast  iron,  No.  2,  from  Gart- 
s'jerry.    Its  specific  gravity  was  6-9156,  and  its  constituents, 


Atoms 
25-86  ) 
0-78  f 
405  1 
0.68 
2-31 
0-011  J 


3-72 


11- 


Iron 90-542 

Manganese 2*764 

Carbon  3-094 

Silicon 0-680 

Aluminum 2-894 

Sulphur 0-023 

99.997 

So  that  it  resembles  cast-iron,  No.  1,  in  the  proportion  of  its  constituents. 
The  carbon  is  almost  the  same  as  in  cold-blast  iron,  No.  2,  but  the  propor- 
tion of  aluminum  is  four  times  as  great,  while  the  silicon  is  Utile  more  than 
half  as  much.  The  atomic  ratios  are,  carbon,  4- ;  silicon,  067  ;  aluminum, 
2-28. 

"(3.)  Five  specimens  of  hot-blast  cast-iron.  No,  1,  were  analyzed.  Two 
of  these  were  from  Carron,  and  three  from  the  Clyde  Iron-Works,  where 
the  hot-blast  originally  began  ;  and  where,  of  course,  it  has  been  longest 
in  use.    The  specific  gravity  of  these  specimens  was  found  to  be  as  follows  : 

1st.  From  Clyde  Works 7-0028 

2d.    From  Carron 7-0721 

3d.   From  Carron 7-0721 

4th.  From  Clyde  Works 7-1022 

Mean 7-0623 

"  It  appears  from  this,  that  the  hot-blast  increases  the  specific  gravity  of 
cast-iron  by  about  l-22d  part.  It  approaches  nearer  the  specific  gravity  of 
cast-iron,  No.  2,  smelted  by  cold  air,  than  to  that  of  No.  1. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  constituents  of  these  four  specimens : 


Clyde.. 

Carron. 

Carron. 

Clyde. 

Clyde. 

Iron   

97-096 
0-332 
2-460 
0-280 
0-385 

95-422 
0-336 
2-400 
1-820 
0-488 

96-09 
0-41 
2-48 
1-49 
0-26 

94-966 
0-160 
1-560 
1-322 
1-374 
0-792 

94-345 

Manganese 

3120 

Carbon 

1-416 

Silicon  

0-520 

Aluminum 

0-599 

Magnesium   

100-55 

100-466 

100-73 

100-174 

100- 

Iron — Statistics.  391 

The  mean  of  these  analyses  gives  us, 

Atoms. 

Iron 95-584  or  27-31    |    ^  . 

Manganese 0-871  or    0-249  f    °^ 


Carbon 2-099  or  2-79 

Silicon 1-086  or  1-086  ]■    1- 

Aluminum 0-422  or  0-337 

101.285 


} 


Or,  in  the  proportion  of  6|  atoms  of  iron  and  manganese  to  1  atom  of 
carbon,  silicon,  and  aluminum.    In  the  cold-blast  cast-iron  we  have. 

Iron.        Carbon,  etc. 

In  No.  1 3|  atoms  1  atom. 

In  No.  2 4i  1    " 

In  hot-blast 6^  1    " 

"  Thus  it  appears,  that  when  iron  is  smelted  by  the  hot-blast  its  specific 
gravity  is  increased,  and  it  contains  a  greater  proportion  of  iron,  and  a 
smaller  proportion  of  carbon,  &ilicon,  and  aluminum,  than  when  smelted 
by  the  cold-blast." 


THE  STATISTICS  OF  THE  IRON  TRADE. 

This  article  has  already  extended  so  much  beyond  the  limits 
of  our  inquiry,  that  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  an  exceed- 
ingly brief  notice  of  the  statistics  of  this  important  manufac- 
ture. In  1740  the  iron  trade  suffered  a  sudden  check  from 
a  falling  off  in  the  supply  of  charcoal,  coal  or  coke  not  having 
been  employed  at  that  time  for  smelting.  The  annual  pro- 
duction seems  to  have  decreased  from  180,000  to  about 
17,350  tons  per  annum. 

Furnaces 69 

Tons 17,350 

Tons.    cwt.  qrs. 

Annual  average  for  each  furnace 294     1     1 

Weekly     do.  do 5    13     0 

Soon  afterward  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  using  coal 
were  overcome,  and  the  manufacture  extended  rapidly.  The 
number  of  charcoal  furnaces  decreased,  but  the  quantity  pro- 
duced by  each  was  considerably  increased.  The  following 
table  shows  the  state  of  the  trade  in  1788  compared  with 
1740: 


392 


Five  Black  Arts. 


Total  quantity  of  charcoal  iron,  in  Britain,  in  1788 14,500 

Do.  coke  do.  do 53,800 

Total  quantity  of  iron,  in  Britain,  in  1788 68,300 

Do.  do.  1740  ....' 17,350 

Increased  produce  of  pig  iron 50,950 

About  the  year  1796  it  was  contemplated  by  Mr.  Pitt  to 
add  to  the  revenue  by  a  tax  on  coal.  This  met  with  a  pow- 
erful opposition  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturers  and  con- 
sumers, especially  those  in  the  iron  trade.  A  committee  was 
appointed,  witnesses  were  examined,  and  the  measure  aban- 
doned as  unwise  and  impracticable. 

The  following  table  shows  the  comparative  make  of  pig 
iron  in  1820  and  1827  : 

1820. 

Tons 400,000 

Furnaces , 284 

1827. 
Tons 690,500 

From  that  time  to  the  present  the  manufacture  has  steadily 
increased.  The  following  table  gives  the  state  of  the  trade 
in  Great  Britain  in  1854  : 

No.  of  Works 228 

No.  of  Furnaces  erected 724 

No.  of  Furnaces  in  blast 655 

Total  produce  in  tons 3,009,874 

In  connection  with  the  above,  we  insert  the  following  table 
from  Mr.  Kenyon  Blackwell's  paper  on  the  Iron  Industry  of 
Great  Britain,  read  before  the  Society  of  Arts.  It  gives  the 
estimated  production  of  crude  iron  in  the  various  countries. 


Tons. 

Great  Britain 3,000,000 

France 750,000 

United  States 750.000 

Prussia 300,000 

Austria 250,000 

Belgium 200,000 

Russia 200,000 


Tons. 

Sweden 150,000 

Various  German  ) 
States.              j 
Other  Countries 300,000 


100,000 


6,000,000 


'g^ 


